Accumulation of human capital. The accumulation of human capital and the transition to a new public formation. Development factors CC.

The concept of human capital is today one of the main theoretical directions in economic sociology and management. For its development, two Nobel Prizes in the field of economics were awarded - Americans Theodor Schultsu in 1979 and Gary Beckker in 1992

According to this concept, human capital is a result of knowledge, skills, skills, motivation, abilities and health, which contributes to the growth of labor productivity and income of this person as a result of the investment and accumulated by man. Investments in human capital include mainly education expenses (general and special, formal and informal), healthcare (disease prevention, medical care, dietary food, improvement of housing conditions) and the formation of the employee of the necessary value and ethical standards (for example, loyalty His company). Since these expenses in the future will be repeatedly compensated for income, they should be recognized by productive, not consumer.

Description of the problem

During the period of radical economic reforms in Russia, knowledge, experience and skills received by people in the Soviet education system and in the process of production activities in the Soviet system of management have sharply depreciated. The labor market presented new requirements for the quality of labor, and the accumulation of human capital actually began then again - if not "from scratch", then with a rather low mark.

Today, the development of the human potential of Russians is directly or indirectly invested by significant funds - both the state and employers and employees themselves. The most common form of these investments is learning: basic or additional higher education, advanced training courses, seminars, trainings.

How effective are these investments in modern Russian conditions? Do they increase the "cost" of the employee and his demand in the labor market?

On April 21 - 22, 2007, VTsiom held a All-Russian survey in 153 settlements in 46 constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Of the 1260 respondents between the ages of 18 and 60, 858 people were constantly or temporarily operated (68.1%). Analysis of the distribution of their answers to questions related to work has served as the basis for this report.

Education and income level

Formal education, first of all - higher, is the main form of investment in human capital. Moreover, the actual size of this capital is determined not so much by the presence of an appropriate diploma as acquired knowledge, skills, skills and social connections.

Gary Becker was originally engaged in the study of the economic efficiency of higher education. According to his concept, employee salary with a certain level of preparation can be represented as consisting of two main parts. The first is what he would receive, having a "zero" level of education. The second is the income on the "educational investments", which are made up of direct training costs and "missed earnings", i.e. revenues not received by students during their studies. For example, by defining the return on investment in study as an income ratio to costs, Becker received the average for the US figure in 12 -14% annual profit.

Thus, the real value of education for its direct carrier and in general is manifested in the fact that an employee with a higher level of education has higher incomes.

According to many economists and sociologists, 15-20 years ago, in our country, the presence of a university diploma reflected a little on the material situation of its owner. And how are things now?

Working respondents were asked to indicate the size of their earnings, income from the main work obtained in the previous month (i.e., in March 2007), including premiums, vacation and other payments, after taxes, with accuracy to (+ / -) 100 rubles.

In the group of working respondents aged 18 to 60 years, these revenues amounted to an average of 9,800 rubles. The incomes of people with higher education were approximately 1.3 times higher than the average for the group - on average, 13,500 rubles, with an unfinished higher than 1.1 times - 10,900 rubles. Revenues of respondents with secondary and secondary special education amounted to 8,100 and 9,600 rubles, respectively.

Evaluating the level of their material well-being, respondents with higher education are significantly more often than on average, attributed themselves to the number of "prosperous" - 21.0% (12.0%), somewhat more often than the "middle wealth" - 49.3% ( 46.2%), less likely to the number of "poor" and "very poor" - respectively, 23.5% and 3.7% (30.3% and 9.3%).

In addition, respondents with higher education more often than on average in the group, noted that they were "generally satisfied" the size of their salary 54.8% (on average 38.7%) and less often - which "in general are not satisfied" 54.1% (59.6%).

Thus, it can be argued that in Russia the possession of a university diploma provides a certain increase in earnings - according to our research, an average of about 1/3. It is worth noting that developed countries "Prize for Higher Education" usually ranges from 50 to 100%.

Prospects for employment

"The possession of human capital" increases the chances not only to receive higher earnings, but also for obtaining work as such. Is it possible to talk about a similar effect in relation to the Russian labor market?

As follows from the results of the study, the level of education and labor employment Russians are directly interrelated.

Of the 1060 respondents at the age of the greatest economic activity - 791 people are constantly or temporarily operate, or an average of 74.6% on the sample. Including, among those having a higher education in this group, 82.9% operate, the secondary special - 76.0%, the average - 71.2%.

82.2% of those surveyed men and 67.6% of those surveyed women of the specified age are working constantly or temporarily; Including among those having a higher education -, respectively, 93.0% and 76.4%, secondary special - 81.9% and 71.0%, the average - 81.3% and 59.4%, unfinished higher - 67, 4% and 47.5%.

Thus, the direct link between the formation and availability of work is particularly characteristic of women. Probably, many women who did not continue their education after graduation are engaged in household and children. It is difficult to say that here is the cause, and as a consequence.

Among the respondents aged 18 to 60 years old with higher education, the least registered unemployed: they constitute only 1.8% of their number, while on average by sample - 2.7%, among having secondary education - 3.8 %, secondary special - 2.7%.

This trend is characteristic of both large cities and regions. The data we received indicate that the less the settlement, the lower in it is the level of employment. But unemployment among respondents with higher education is everywhere less than an average of the sample.

In Moscow and St. Petersburg, 78.0% of respondents between the ages of 18 and 60, including with higher education - 79.2%; In cities with a number of 100 - 500 thousand inhabitants -, respectively, 70.6% and 75.0%; in cities with a number of up to 50 thousand inhabitants - 63.9% and 73.7%; In the villages - 54.5% and 76.2%.

Thus, in the Russian conditions, a higher level of its formation really significantly enhances the competitive positions of workers in the labor market.

Without separation from production

In addition to obtaining a formal education, the most important form of investment in human capital is the accumulation of practical production experience, i.e. professional training. According to some reports, in developed countries, the total investment in production training is approximately comparable to the amount of investment in formal education.

Gary Becker introduced the distinction between special and general training. Special training gives workers with knowledge and skills that will be useful only in the company where they were obtained. It is funded for the most part by the companies themselves, and they also receive the main income from it. In the course of general training, the employee acquires knowledge and skills that can find application and other employers. General training is indirectly paid by the employees themselves - striving for advanced training, they agree to the lower salary during the training period. But in the future they get "income from investment" as a higher wage.

And what about vocational training in our country?

To the question "Have you had to receive professional training over the past three years?" More than 2/3 (67.1%) on the total number of working respondents of working age from 18 to 60 years have answered negatively.

29.8% were held, including: advanced training courses in their profession - 14.2%; training of an adjacent profession or a specialty close to its own - 6.7%; Primary thorough account for not profession, specialty - 5.0%; Retraining on a new, other profession, specialty - 4.0%.

In Moscow, St. Petersburg and the city-"millionaires", about 40% of respondents passed vocational training over the past three years, and about 25% on the village; Residents of small and medium cities found themselves somewhere in the middle. True, in large cities, people more often change the profession or get the second, adjacent, and in the village and in small cities - increase the qualifications of the already existing.

The differences between representatives of various age groups were insignificant. Among the working respondents, 18-24 years old, there is a clear surge of primary thoroughbred, which is then coming to no, and less than the number of retraining. But in age groups of 24-34, 34-44 and even 45-59 years old, the total percentage of vocational training differed slightly differs from the middle digits on the sample, which confirms the truth - it's never late to study.

Significant differences in the level of education: 43.1% received vocational training among working respondents with higher education, with an average special (technical school, college) - 34.6% and middle (school, vocational school) - only 22.1%. Specialists with high school diplomas, for example, are much more often underway training courses in their profession - 24.1% than graduating from the technical school (14.1%) or school (6.7%). That is - the higher education, the greater the desire to increase its professional level.

It would seem that the competitive market environment should be more than "budgetary", stimulate workers to raise their professional level. However, the respondents "state employees" (employees of science, culture, education, government office; military personnel and law enforcement officers) over the past three years have received professional training much more often (54.1%) than the average for the group (29.8%).

It is possible to give the following explanation for this fact: many employees do not feel the need to increase their "capitalization" by receiving training, and therefore expect that such training will be conducted on the initiative and to the employer's means. To the question "Who, in your opinion, should take care of the professional growth of employees?" The most common answers among working respondents of working age were the following: "Employers" (58.6%), "Employees themselves" (24.3%), "State" (12.3%). The private employers, for their part, probably also do not always rush to invest in the development of employees. As a result, the state is often the "sponsor" of vocational training.

Professional development opportunities are not a priority for most Russians. Distribution in a group of working working age answers to the question "If you had to get a job now, what would be the most important for you? (no more than 3 replies) "shows: in the first place with a large margin costs" wage size "(74.5%), then -" Providing social guarantees provided for by law: paid vacations, hospital days, various payments and compensation "(37.2%) and only on the third -" The possibility of professional self-realization, the compliance of the work of the existing qualifications, professional growth "(28.2%).

Maybe a weak interest in advanced training is explained by the fact that it is increasing, usually not related to a significant increase in the income of workers - or, in the terminology of the authors of the concept of human capital, is more often "special", and not "common" vocational training?

However, a comparison of the size of earnings, income from the main work received in March 2007, including premiums, vacation and other payments, after taxes, shows: working respondents aged 18 to 60, who have received any form over the past three years Vocational training, on average, had a higher level of earnings (8,600 rubles) than not received (6,900 rubles).

"Deceived Investors"

The theory of human capital explains why salaries of workers grow with age. In the youth of the great investment in education, professional experience and training, gradually these investments are reduced, and employees begin to receive income from them.

In developed countries, the average level of salary reaches a maximum of 50 to 60 years, after which it begins to decline, since the factors of "capital wear" are affected - problems with health, obsolescence of knowledge and skills, passivity, reduction of the ability to learn and perceive the new, etc. .

Analysis of the distribution of respondents' answers to the question about the size of their earnings, revenues from the main work obtained in the previous month, showed an interesting feature - the average maximum of revenues of the surveyed Russians falls at the age of 31-35 years, after which it begins to decline. Thus, the average income in March 2007 in the group of workers of 18-24 years amounted to 8,200 rubles, 25-34 years old - 11,000 rubles, 35-44 years - 10,900 rubles and 45-60 years - already 9,000 rubles.

This trend is a maximum of income aged 31 - 35 years and then a sharp decline is particularly characteristic of people who have higher education (see the chart "Trends of the dynamics of the average wage of respondents depending on their age and education").

The distance between the upper and lower dashed lines is "award for higher education". Please note that in young and middle age, it fit into the 50-100% mentioned, characteristic of developed countries, but closer to 60 years almost disappears.

The explanation can be very simple. Working force in Russia is divided into two groups - on those who began to accumulate "their human capital" in Soviet times, before the start of radical market reforms, and those who have formed as an employee exclusively in a new, market era.

The Russians, which are now 30-35 years old, graduated from school and began labor activity or studies just in the late 80s - early 90s. Among those who have formed as an employee exclusively in the market era, they managed to accumulate the maximum amount of knowledge and professional experience and therefore the most highly appreciated by the modern economy.

Human capital, invested in Soviet times, by contrast, significantly depreciated. It is understandable and on the household level - the greater cargo of the "Soviet" education, experience, mentality, values \u200b\u200band habits carrying a person in life, the harder it is to find a highly paid job in the labor market.

But it is highly paid, and not any job! As shown in the chart "Trends of the dynamics of employment of respondents, depending on their age and education," in the older age group, the percentage of working remains approximately the same as in the rest of the groups.

So, the laws of accumulation of human capital also operate in Russia: more educated and qualified specialists and we have great chances to get prestigious and highly paid work.

Since in the 90s, a significant part of human capital was depreciated, this accumulation began actually again. Therefore, if in developed countries the most "capitalized" on the labor market today are representatives of the older generation, then in Russia - employees aged 30-35 years. It can be assumed that the "normal" picture will restrict about a quarter of a century - when the current 35-year-olds themselves achieved pre-age age ...

• Selection and selection, labor market

Keywords:

1 -1

The most intriguing empirical observations, actively discussed in modern scientific literature on economic development, belongs to the so-called "Curse of Natural Resources". Its essence is that in countries rich in natural resources, the rate of economic growth below. Attempts to explain this phenomenon led to the fact that several ways were allocated to the negative impact of the wealth of natural resources on economic development. These include the Dutch disease, rantoriented behavior and degradation of institutions, political instability and decrease in incentives to accumulate physical and human capital.

The shortage of human capital and low rates of its accumulation Many researchers consider one of the most important factors of the resource curse, the "responsibility" of which is estimated at the level of from 11 to 25%, depending on which territories analysis was carried out.

Why is this factor so important? Modern researchers consider human capital the main driving force of economic growth. First of all, thanks to numerous positive externals, investments in human capital have a constant return, while investments in physical capital are characterized by decreasing returns. A higher level of education allows you to generate more knowledge and innovation, facilitates the borrowing of technology, stimulates endogenous scientific and technological progress. In addition, it is the stock of human capital, according to researchers, determines the quality of institutions. In countries with a higher level of human capital, the democratic form of Board 4 is more likely, which, in turn, is more likely to contribute to the protection of property rights, an increase in the quality of government and reducing corruption. In recent years, survey works and empirical studies of the phenomenon of "resource curse" appeared in the domestic literature. But only in the work of E. Suslova and N. Volchkova 6 considered the impact of the abundance of natural resources on the accumulation of human capital. This review is designed to fill the existing gap in the literature. Especially since the economic and political discussion on the rational use of rental income and the accumulation of human capital does not come down from the agenda in modern Russia.

Households and investments in education

Why are countries rich in natural resources spend less than countries comparable to income levels, but do not speak natural resources? Why does Natural capital "displaces" human?

The factor determining household incentives for investment in education (both in the sense of money and time) is a significant revenue premium arising from better education. Accordingly, the insufficiency of household incentives to investments in human capital in natural resource countries are mainly explained by low demand for qualified work due to both the effects of Dutch disease and randor-oriented behavior. Rental income growth leads to an increase in the mining sector and the sector of non-confused goods and services and the reduction of the processing and / or agricultural sectors producing traded goods 9. As a rule, the growth of the mining sector does not create significant demand for qualified labor. Reducing the manufacturing sector leads to a reduction in jobs that require a qualified work and a higher level of education.

In the same direction there is an expansion of the sector of non-military goods and services (frequently represented by state-owned companies). The growth of this sector also does not lead to an increase in demand for qualified labor, since in the absence of or substantial restriction of competition, the quality of human capital ceases to play a significant role. In the absence of demand for skilled labor, the wage gain with higher education is low or "is generally absent. And therefore, households have no incentives to invest money and time to receive education.

On the other hand, if in conditions of poor institutions, revenues from redistributive activities (for example, from employment in the public sector) are higher than from industrial or business activities, then households will choose the first. Since the public sector is not directly experiencing international competition, it is less sensitive to the quality of human capital, to the quality of the education of people working in it.

Another, in many respects adjacent to the previous one, the explanation is associated with the elite policy that uses rental revenues to create ineffective jobs in both industries protected by trade barriers from competition from foreign manufacturers and directly in the public sector, for example in the army or law enforcement. Here, low competition causes a decline in labor quality requirements, resources, since entrepreneurs know that the state by increasing customs tariffs (or with the help of non-tariff barriers, subsidies) will protect even ineffective domestic producer from ruin.

A high level of inequality, characteristic of resource-dependent countries, also contributes its negative contribution to the accumulation of human capital. The strong bundle of society leads to the fact that the poorest segments of the population are not able to invest in human capital even in conditions when the labor market offers a high award for education.

Its contributing to a low demand for qualified labor will also make an overestimated course of the national currency during the rise in prices for commodities. It makes cheaper borrowing in foreign markets, which, along with increasing renal income, leads to an increase in the influx of cheap capital to the country, which means it creates incentives for capitaline-intensive modernization. In other words, cheap physical and financial capital reduce the demand for labor and human capital.

State and investment in education

Why does the state in countries rich in natural resources, does not stimulate the rise in the level of education of the population? Obviously, the amount of public spending on education is more determined by incentives of politicians and bureaucracy than the needs of society and the labor market. But how do rental income affect politician incentives? The inflow of income from the export of natural resources caused by the discovery of the field or the increase in commodity prices, creates a sense of confidence, often false. Few countries during periods of raw boom are not amenable to expectation to increase government spending - to implement ambitious investment projects, a variety of social payments to the population, expanding the state apparatus. On the one hand, such expenses contribute to the growth of the popularity of politicians and loyalty of the population to the current regime. On the other hand, they also determine the growth of corruption, reducing the demand for progressive institutions and the effectiveness of public administration.

In general, soft budget constraints and the pursuit of Renta weaken incentives for the implementation of economic policies contributing to the long-term economic growth. Elements of the latter include investments in human capital. In this sense, the effect of "displacement" of human capital by natural resources is associated to a greater extent with dips in public policy than directly with the raw orientation of the economy.

High volatility of rental income and generated by it Macroconomic and political instability also reduce the incentives of elites to the creation of conditions for the accumulation of human capital. The instability causes the political and business elite to appreciate future incomes significantly less than the current, and, it means, creates prerequisites for making decisions maximizing income in the short period. Investments in education require, as a rule, long-term time so that the positive effect leads to them is noticeable, and therefore the formation itself, or wider - human capital, not an attractive investment scope.

Thus, in the abundance of natural resources, neither household nor the state seems to be interested in investing in human capital. But is it?

What do the data indicate?

Numerous attempts were made to statistically test the hypothesis that the abundance of natural resources leads to a slower accumulation of human capital. Authors, using a wide range of indicators reflecting human and natural capital, did not come to unambiguous conclusions.

Thus, in one of the works it was shown that among developing countries, natural resources rich in the average higher indicators of the accumulation of human capital 19.

However, evidence was found in favor of the negative impact of resource wealth on human capital. T. Gilvason found a negative correlation between the attitude of natural capital to the national wealth of the country, on the one hand, and the indicators of the accumulation of human capital (the resources that the state spends on education, as well as the existing level of human capital, measured as the expected number of years spent on education, As a whole for men and women, and separately for women, as well as the coverage of the population of secondary education) - on the other. It was shown that with an increase in the share of natural capital in the general wealth of the country by 10%, economic growth slows down by 1%, while almost half of this reduction is associated with the lower level of human capital (measured as a population coverage). The results obtained allowed us to conclude that the abundance of natural resources negatively affects economic growth not only through the effects of Dutch disease and Rentorogenic behavior, but also through the suppression of private and state incentives to accumulate human capital.

Using the attitude of natural capital to national wealth as an indicator reflecting the resource wealth of the country, has become a reason for criticism. It was shown that the relationship detected by this indicator is due to the inclusion of human capital in the denominator of this indicator. If you transform an irrigate indicator of natural resources into the ratio of natural capital to the physical, then the statistically significant link between the resource wealth measured in this way is not always 22. If you exclude non-aminery natural resources from the numerator (the so-called "green capital" - land, forest resources, etc.), then there is no statistically significant connection between such an indicator of abundance of natural resources and approximately 10 indicators of human capital (including used before). This made it possible to assume that not all natural resources have a negative impact, but "green" capital, that is, the resources that can be used in forest and agriculture, and mineral natural resources do not play a significant role in the accumulation of human capital.

A more detailed analysis showed that the capacities of the abundance of natural resources with the main indicators of human capital correlate positively, and the proportion of primary exports to GDP and mineral exports in total exports is negative. Analysis conducted separately by developing countries has in general, similar results.

Thus, the main discussion has developed on the issue of understanding the abundance of natural resources and how to measure it. How wide to determine the natural capital should be used? Is the role of agricultural and mining sectors of the economy? Do you use relative indicators designed to measure the structural features of the resource economy (the contribution of resources in GDP or export), or the values \u200b\u200bof stocks / rental income indicators, designed to measure the resource wealth act? These questions arose after the first attempts to estimate the impact of natural resources on the accumulation of human capital and in general on economic growth and developed

human capital Natural resource

From resource wealth to resource dependence

Numerous stories of success and failures in the development of resource-rich countries, as well as conflicting assessments for different indicators of resource wealth, led researchers to the idea that it is necessary to share the wealth of natural resources (.natural Resource Abundance or Endowment) and the dependence on natural resources (Natural Resource Dependence). According to some authors, the resource wealth itself has a positive impact on various aspects of economic development. As indicators reflecting the resource wealth, natural capital is used per capita, the reserves of natural resources per capita or even pilly renal income. The high dependence of the commodity economy, which manifests itself in the high proportion of exports of commodity exports to GDP, in the revenues of budget and income from exports, specialization in the raw materials in international trade can harm the growth and development of countries, including human capital accumulation. .

So, if using M. Alekseev and R. Konrad, the per capita cost of hydrocarbon reserves, as well as the average oil production per capita (these indicators reflect the resource wealth), it turns out that there is a positive, although not always statistically significant The relationship between the country's oil revenues and education (measured as the coverage of the population of secondary education).

Other measures of the abundance of natural resources can also be used - the production of the oil industry per capita, as well as the attitude of non-renewable energy resources and mined mineral resources in the country to gross national income. The authors found that natural resources have a positive (albeit a small scale) influence on the accumulation of human capital. However, in countries with economies in transition, this positive effect is either becoming significantly less or disappears.

As an indicator of the economy of the economy from natural resources, you can take the share of natural capital in national wealth, and the indicator of natural capital on person use as a measure of resource wealth. Data analysis of 108 countries showed that resource dependence adversely affects the accumulation of human capital (measured as the expected duration of school training), and resource wealth contributes to him.

A similar result can be obtained if to measure natural capital to use the share of mineral mining in GDP, and investments in human capital - the average number of years spent on secondary education. In addition, such conclusions are confirmed and when analyzing at the subnational level, for example, at the level of the economy of individual states in the United States.

Considering the above assumption about the existence of a positive relationship between the performance of resource wealth, measured per capita, and indicators reflecting the development of the population and per capita kilometer. In the first case, the result was close to the proportion of the primary sector in GDP obtained when analyzing. However, if you take an indicator of the production of the primary sector per 1 kV. km, it turns out that there is no statistically significant connection. Thus, the hypothesis about the different nature of the influence of the resource abundance and resource dependence was rejected.

In general, the assumption that it is precisely the resource dependence that has a negative impact on human capital, and resource wealth contributes to its accumulation, confirmed by many studies. However, some work suggests that differences in the results of assessing the impact of natural resources on economic development, including the accumulation of human capital, cannot be explained by separating resource abundance and resource dependence.

"Spot" VS. Diffuse resources

To explain the differences in the resulting empirical estimates, the assumption was put forward that some natural resources contribute to the development, while others were not. The negative effects of natural resources were associated with "green" capital and with a specialization in rural and forestry, and not with mineral resources and specialization in the extractive industry.

However, attempts to check this hypothesis did not give the expected result. Analysis of data on 18 countries of Latin America for the period 1975-2004. It has shown that in general, the abundance of natural resources has a weak negative impact on the accumulation of human capital: an increase in resource dependence (the ratio of primary exports to GDP or the proportion of primary exports in total exports) by 1% leads to a reduction in human capital accumulation by 0.06 or 0, 02%, respectively. After the disaggregation of resource wealth indicators it turned out that oil export specialization is associated with lower accumulation rates of human capital, and exports of agricultural products does not provide statistically significant impact on the level of human capital in the region, as well as the export of mineral resources as a whole.

In another paper, it was proposed to share natural resources on the so-called "point" ("Point-Source" of Natural Resources) and "Distributed", "diffuse" ("Diffuse" Natural Resources) ^. Dotted hydrocarbons, mineral minerals, cultivation of some "plantation" crops (coffee, cocoa) were attributed. To diffuse land, forest, maize, rice and wheat growing. According to the authors, if point resources are associated with bad institutions and thereby lower growth rates, then diffuse resources rather stimulate economic development or at least do not brake it.

However, if we consider oil as a point resource with which in the literature, first of all, the negative impact of natural resources on economic development is associated, then as noted above, it is possible to show the positive impact of this type of natural resources on the accumulation of human capital.

Thus, the separation of natural resources on the stimulating accumulation of human capital / economic growth and overwhelming it also did not give one-to-one results.

Accumulation of human capital

Growing social obligations, as well as the dependence of economic and social progress from scientific knowledge, the accumulation of human capital, the level of development of infrastructure industries led to a constant increase in the state's costs on a wide range of services, primarily science, education, health care, social services and alex. In the 60-70 years, the impact of the state for services has repeatedly increased due to the strengthening of its economic functions and an increase in budgetary expenses for education, health care and other social goals in the context of the concept and programs of the state of welfare. In the US, for example, from 1955 to 1970, the share of education and health care in general budget expenditures increased from 14.5 to 20.8%.

For the modern stage of global scientific and technical and socio-economic development, a fundamental change in the role and importance of the human factor in economics and society is characteristic. Human capital becomes an essential factor in economic growth. According to some estimates, in developed countries, an increase in the duration of education for one year leads to an increase in GDP by 5-15%. Even above, the return on investments in education in developing countries. An unprecedented jump in the industrial development of the countries of Southeast Asia has become possible due to the highest pace of accumulation of human capital on the basis of the development of universal education.

But in addition to quantitative characteristics, the quality of labor is plays an equally important role, and labor costs. More educated and qualified working force is more productive, which helps increase the level and growth rate of economic growth. Labor costs can be expanded without any increasing working time and the number of employed, only by improving the quality of labor, the level of education, qualifications, etc. This process is often referred to as the process of accumulating human capital and plays a particularly important role in modern conditions (Table . twenty).

The considered model is a purely theoretical - in the real economy both the release and productivity in general increase. However, the model formulates some common conditions for equilibrium economic growth. It is that such an increase should be achieved not by increasing investment, but only at the expense of scientific and technological progress, savings on the scale of production and accumulation of human capital, i.e., knowledge and experience.

Accumulation of human capital

The value assessment of the accumulation of human capital in terms of education - knowledge, skills, experience - can be expressed in the "Fund of Education" or at specific costs of education. The cost of training in primary, secondary school, in technical schools and in universities differs significantly. So, for example, in the USSR in 1980, the costs of one student in these educational institutions were equal in elementary school - 600 rubles, in the middle - 700, in the technical school - 980, at the Institute - 1180, at the University - 1450 rubles. in year. In the US, these indicators relate as 1 1.6 1.9 3.1.

Separate problems of accumulation of human capital to one degree or another are considered in this teaching aid in the heads of the labor market, the distribution of income (wages), on the use of limited resources, on theories of economic growth, as well as in a number of others.

For example, in industrialized countries, the accumulation of human capital at the end of the XX century. 3-4 times exceeded the accumulation of capital in material and real form, the costs of building new museums, libraries, theaters, sports facilities increased significantly.

The authors of new studies offer several other, expansion conditions of models compared to the basic. If in the latter, technical progress was the only long-term factor in economic growth, then in the models derivatives, such long-term growth factors as a savings rate, labor growth rates, the level of investment in human capital and the new category for us are the rate of accumulation of human capital, ZN . Recall that in the standard Salue model discussed in the 4 present chapter, the savings rate did not affect the long-term growth rate.

Observation 215 Binding knowledge Reliability 105 Name 194 Names Branded 154 Accumulation of human capital Taxes 32 for value added 34

B. Micro 2 changes in the behavior of households, labor markets, the accumulation of human capital and the distribution of income and property in Russia during the transition period.

Let's start with the analysis of the investment economy in higher education and, based on the results of this analysis, consider the functioning of the labor market with higher education. Then consider the role of production training in the process of accumulating human capital and completed the material by discussing human capital in art and professional sports.

The main link formation and accumulation of human capital.

The salary of workers differs for many reasons. Differences in wages to some extent compensate for employees of the work features. All other things being equal in conditions of difficult conditions are paid higher than light and pleasant work. Employees with high human capital receive a greater wage. Profit on the accumulated human capital is high and in recent decades only increases.

Hypothesis of the fallen patriarchalness. In families with a higher level of education and accumulated human capital, the distribution of market and domestic labor load is more uniform. Family with lower levels

N and RY \u003d D + V + G0 + G1Y-. Equations of equilibrium dynamics (3.7) - (3.12) are essentially similar to the above for the case of Avtarkia. Equation (3.12) follows from the conditions of market equilibrium (3.6) of capital distribution, / su / r, and it explicitly reflects the relationship between national economies. According to (3.12), the average financial position weighted with the help of countries in the world issue is equal to one. The shares of the release (PK are determined on the basis of equation equations of human capital (3.3).

One of the serious shortcomings of reform programs in post-socialist states and the first steps to implement them is the underestimation of the significance of the intensification and development of human resources, increased labor motivation, which aggravates the decline in production, leads to a decrease in labor productivity, waste and depreciation of the accumulated human capital, even greater dehumanization of labor relationship. This is evidenced by both general economic indicators (the fall in production, the growth of unemployment, a reduction in the system of vocational training, etc.) and position in enterprises.

In the last decade, a number of qualitatively new theoretical models were published, in which an attempt was made to substantiate endogenous (ie, inherent in the system itself), the nature of technological changes induced growth. The peculiarity of these models is a new variable - human capital, which characterizes the volume of scientific knowledge and practical experience accumulated in the learning process and directly industrial activities.

After World War II in developed, and then in some developing countries, conditions were created for mass emission to the market for the cheap consumer goods and services. All this itself has led to a noticeable increase in the standard of living, creating objective conditions for greater social orientation of the economy - one of the main factors of sustainable economic development. As a result, most families in developed and some developing countries in the expenditure structures grew the proportion of the costs of medicine, education, i.e. in the accumulation of human capital. Given the role of social factor in the global economic development

Further development

Society is people, and people are social layers. Mainly, the value of each social layer is determined by the presence of the shares of human capital in it.

1. What does human capital mean

Its level in each social layer depends on the ratio of the concentration of people in it with the abilities higher than those of others. Human capital is something that defines a qualitative or intellectual level of a particular type of society.

In itself, the concept of "capital" means the literally "main property". This is a combination of assets with which a person has.

If you combine the concept of "capital" with the meaning of the word "man" - you can confidently say that we are talking about the value of personal and professional qualities.

In this case, under such assets are meant:

• knowledge
• intelligence

These are intangible assets. This is the level of education and human education.

The purpose of any capital is the creation of profits, wealth. No exception and human capital. It is closely related to the overall labor productivity at a particular enterprise, in the company, in a particular society, city, region, country.

The history of the appearance of the concept

In English, "Human Capital" is written as "Human Capital".

For the first time, this phrase said Jacob Miner in 1956, and then used this definition Theodore Schulz in 1961. Then the first inequality of the final income was recorded under general initial data on labor and tools.

2. Components of human capital

Internal beliefs of a person, and equally, his hobbies and the desire to develop usually determine social factors.

• nationality, mentality
• attitude to discipline
• wellness, health

The main component of human capital is the experience and knowledge accumulated on time.

In fact, human capital is nothing more than human qualities.

• personal, individual
• collective
• corporate

The difference between the human capital of one social layer from another consists in comparing the competitiveness of the level of intellectual abilities accumulated by each of them.

3. Financing in Human Capital

There are various ways of investments in human capital. The fact that this brings profit is due to the fact that the personal and business qualities of a particular specialist or group of workers contribute to the creation of economic well-being for all parties.

Investments in a person usually imply an increase in its ability to work. For example, it can be sponsorship:

• in the field of education
• raising Professional Skills
• in the field of payment for accommodation for housing, clothing, nutrition and other household expenditures

To set the amount of investment, the source level should be determined - a set of information that a particular person has a specific time in this time, and compare it with the desired end result.

4. Human capital index

Human capital is evaluated using an index. The calculations use a special methodology. Considered:

• costs in the past
• revenues

Economists proposed a method for evaluating the index by the formula. It includes such indicators as:

• earnings for life (x)
• salary size at present
• amount of expected profit aged (X + 1)

The dynamics of human development from year to year is taken into account, the change of its work, posts, additional education, activities, reasons for increasing. This determines the ability of a person to generate income.

According to calculations, in Russia, human capital for 2019 is 46% of 70% of the costs of organizing economic cooperation and development (OSER) in comparison with the countries. At the same time, the proportion of people with higher education in Russia is higher than in OSER countries. The quality of education is at the same level.

5. How to manage human capital

Financing into human potential gives the investor the same profits as from investment in any other project.

There is also risks here:

• the desire of a person go to another job
• his new lifeflow, reduced working capacity, for example, the birth of children, if a sponsored person - a woman
• availability of a part of knowledge that does not give useful returns, for example, a specific nature

However, it is possible to conclude a special contract by which a sponsored person undertakes to perform specific tasks a certain period of time without the possibility of terminating it or change the conditions. Thus, a guarantee of payback of investments is ensured. An exception in this case may be a disease of the sponsored person or his death.

Human capital is the highest form of management:

• tools
• resources
• systems

Ultimately, the quality of management is displayed in economic indicators.

It can be said that the quality and amount of information that a person carries in itself, directly affects economic indicators not only in the enterprise, in the company, but also in the city, region or in the country. Consumer information determines the growth of these indicators, respectively, affects competitiveness in the global market.

Human resource is the main value of the country. For example, in the company Bill Gates, the share of human capital is about 50%, which allows its brand in its segment to be the leader in the global software market for operating systems.

Related records:

• Discount rate - what it is and for what ...

In the process of economic development, it is observed a replacement of the accumulation of physical capital on the accumulation of human capital. The rate of accumulation of human capital is ahead of the rate of accumulation of physical capital. Human capital has a completely different process of accumulation than physical capital. Attention to human capital is due to the explicit profitability of funds invested in its formation (for example, education, training).

Human capital is considered a mobile form of capital. In the current conditions, labor migration of highly qualified employees is considered a significant source of human capital accumulation, which ensures material well-being and economic growth in the Russian Federation.

The economic world has the need for high quality hired employees with higher education and considerable qualifications. Theoretical models of increasing and microeconomic information suggest that the accumulation of human capital is considered a significant condition characterizing the income to the share of residents, GDP. One of the key conditions of production, characterizing the state well-being of the state, is the size of the collected human capital.

The main form of accumulation of human capital is investments in human capital, health, education. The accumulation of the main assets of human capital occurs during the investment process, and as investors are both the private sector of the economy and the state.

The growth of the global economy will be in the shortest few years in the dependence of the honeycomb accumulation of human capital. The accumulation of human capital becomes one of the main conditions for achieving such a development. The accumulation of human capital is considered a source of economic growth.

The policy of saving human capital contains in themselves:

human capital and demographic movements: a combination to a single adjustment;

formation of human capital;

business and capital investments in human capital;

state-personal partnership in the field of saving human capital;

saving problems and human capital in the regions of the Russian Federation.

A subjective factor has a huge impact on the accumulation of human capital. The accumulation of human capital depends on the average level of human capital. People participation in the process of accumulating human capital are meaningful, requires motivation and considerable efforts of the trainee itself.

Direct accumulation costs of human capital may contain individual tasks, educational materials, and capital investments in human capital. The overall process of accumulation of human capital is long and ranges from 12 until 20 and the most years. In the Russian Federation, the accumulation of human capital in any area contains its characteristic features: in rural areas, small settlements, capital accumulation is increasingly passing than in large settlements. Economic growth promotes the accumulation of human capital in rural areas.