XXXI. CAPTURE OF TAVRIZ In the autumn of 1827 Persian war, which was so complicated by the unexpected invasion of Abbas Mirza on Etchmiadzin, suddenly took a completely unexpectedly decisive turn. The fact is that while Paskevich’s army, after the fall of Erivan, was still just going to

V. THE CAPTURE OF ANAPA While Paskevich was still preparing for the campaign in the main theater of war, in the distance, on the shores of the Black Sea, another event took place, very important for further destinies war in Asian Turkey - Anapa, this stronghold, fell to the Russian troops

1258 MIRF. Part 11. P. 659.

1258 See: Foreign policy Soviet Union during the period Patriotic War. T. 1. M., 1944. S.

This is the story of how the all-powerful might of the Mongol military campaigns, which lasted for a whole century, was exhausted among the sandy hills of Ain Jalut in the Sinai Desert. The heroic end of Kit Buk was the last song of Mongol greatness. So today let this song be a call that awakens the courage that has died out in us, inspires our minds, restores lost faith and awakens the dormant strength within us.

For this historical essay journalist and writer Baasangiin Nominchimid was awarded the Baldorj Prize in 2010, awarded in Mongolia for the best works of journalism. For the first time in Russian - translated by S. Erdambileg especially for ARD.

In the sands of distant Palestine the wind of victory subsides,

There the brave army dies under clouds of arrows.

The Cuman grooms stabbed daggers into the backs of their owners,

The knights, blinded by gold, exchanged friends for enemies.

The army fought valiantly, without losing courage -

Alas, the treachery that stole the victory took place there.

Let's honor their memory

About 750 years ago, on September 3, 1260, in the southwest of the city of Nazareth of the modern state of Israel, near the border with Palestine, the Mongol army was completely defeated by the united forces of the Islamic army. Approximately 10 thousand Mongol warriors, and among them the glorious commander of the Mongol Empire - Kit Buka, found eternal peace in that land.

Over the course of a whole century, the victoriously developing banner of the Mongol army bowed there for the first time, and the Mongol warriors, who had never known defeat before, tasted the bitterness of pogrom there for the first time.

Many historians assess the Battle of Ain Jalut as historical event, where the Mongol campaigns of conquest were first repulsed, a battle that brought salvation to the Arab-Muslim world from complete defeat. And we can agree with this.

*The Mongol army was commanded by Shikhihutag, he had three tumens at his disposal, one tumen numbered 10,000 soldiers.

But still, for the first time, the Mongol army suffered a major defeat during Genghis Khan’s campaign against Khorezm. This happened in the battle of the Mongol troops* with the army of Jalal ad-Din at Paravan, in 1221 on the territory of modern Afghanistan. Then the defeat was noticeable, but it had no impact on the outcome of the Khorezm campaign, the goal of which was the conquest of Khorezm and Iran. This defeat in no way weakened the offensive impulse of the Mongols. Their army, led by Genghis Khan himself, pursued the army of Jalal ad-Din to the banks of the Indus, where it was finally defeated in 1221.

As for Ain Jalut, the defeat of the Mongol forces undoubtedly saved the Arab world and Misir (modern Egypt) from final conquest. We can assume that from that moment the wheel of history began to turn reverse side. After this battle there could no longer be any talk of the Mongols conquering Egypt. The final conquest of Syria, Phenicia, and Palestine not only was not completed, but they were completely lost. The army was forced to move back to the eastern bank of the Euphrates.

In various historical sources There are quite different estimates of the number of troops on both sides that participated in the Battle of Ain Jalut. Most historians agree that Kitbuk's army numbered from 10 to 15 thousand warriors. The Mamluk troops numbered much more warriors, maybe 2-3 times.

Emir Baybars, modern image.

Thus, 6,000 kilometers far from their native steppes, approximately one tumen of Mongol warriors under the banner of the batyr Kit Buk, together with their few allies, met in a deadly battle with significantly superior enemy forces. The Mongols were opposed not by Arabs, but by warriors of Turkic blood under the command of Kutuz and Baybars - one might say, close relatives by origin, no less brave and skillful warriors, determined to die or win.

Storm clouds over the Islamic world

On February 13, 1258, completely exhausted, Baghdad knelt before the soldiers of Hulagu Khan. The Baghdad caliph, without food and water, was imprisoned in the storehouse of his treasures - Hulagu Khan advised him to eat gold, washed down with silver. In the Muslim world, the fall of Baghdad, unconquerable for 500 years, was like a bolt from the blue.

And it seemed to Christians that the sun was rising in the east, favoring their world. Europe rejoiced - finally their dream of many centuries would come true, Hulagu Khan was coming to liberate the Holy Land...

The Armenians also rejoiced. Their historian Kirakos wrote: “This city, like an insatiable, voracious spider, devastated the entire world for hundreds of years. For the blood he shed immeasurably, for extreme cruelty and despotism, for his grave sins, heaven punished this city, and it fell.”

Before taking Baghdad, Hulagu Khan also put an end to the formidable force of the Islamic world - the Ismailis, led by their leader, the so-called Elder of the Mountain. The Ismailis were a guild of assassins who terrorized the Muslim world for centuries. Not to mention fighting them - anyone who dared to defy their will was doomed to certain death. But the Mongols dealt with them without much difficulty, mocked his heir, leading him around the city, and then executed him.

Fall of Baghdad. From miniatures of Mongolian Iran early. 14th century Illustrations for Jami at-tawarikh Rashid ad-din. Photo: culturelandshaft.wordpress.com

Hulagu Khan, without staying long in the fallen Baghdad, moved to the other side of the Euphrates. By the beginning of 1260, Aleppo was taken, then nearby cities and fortresses fell one after another. However, Hulagu Khan was forced to return.

There were good reasons for this.

The great Khan Munke died, and the dispute over the succession to the throne between Hulagu's siblings, Kublai Kublai and Arigbukha came to the brink of civil war.

Berke, Khan of the Golden Horde, who converted to Islam, was dissatisfied with the oppression of Muslims and the destruction of Baghdad, the patrimony of the Islamic world.

In the Caucasus, mutual strife created real threat on the northern borders of the property.

Leaving Syria, Hulagu appointed his commander Kit Buk as the ruler of this country, instructing him not only to complete its conquest, but also to conquer Misir, for which purpose he left an army of one tumen under his command. Is it possible to conquer Syria, Palestine, the entire Arabian Peninsula and Misir with such forces? After all, the warriors of these lands gained considerable experience and became hardened in numerous difficult battles with the crusaders for more than a century. But to the Mongols, who were at the height of their power at that time, and who were invariably accompanied by a fair wind of victories and successes, nothing seemed impossible.

Without wasting much time, Kit Buka moved south, Homs, Baalbek, other cities and fortresses were taken, and it was Damascus’s turn. The famous Damascus steel swords did not help, the city submitted.

The Sultan of Aleppo, an-Nasir Yusuf, who had found refuge in Damascus, went on the run again. Warriors of Kit Buk pursued the Sultan, caught up with him and captured him on the territory of the modern Gaza Strip. Not only Syria, but Palestine as a whole was conquered. The cities of Sidon, Tours, Acre, located on a narrow coastal strip of the sea, and the adjacent Trifola region remained under the control of the crusaders.

Thus, by the middle of 1260, the entire Islamic world was on the verge of collapse. Their last hope was the Mamluk Turks in Misir. It is at this decisive moment that the Battle of Ain Jalut takes place.

The betrayal of the cynical barons who turned back the wheel of history

Kit Buka Noyon was located in the city of Baalbek, in the east of today's Israel. The Christian princes and barons - the Templars of the Middle East and Asia Minor - whether they wanted it or not, became allies of the Mongols. After all, their common enemy was the Islamic world. Before this, all of Europe had undertaken crusades four times to liberate the Holy Land, all without success. The offensive of Hulagu Khan awakened hope in them. At last the Holy Land will be free. Now the Arabs will not be able to drive the crusaders out of the lands they have conquered.

The image of Kit Buk noyon appears before us in the aura of military valor. He is seen triumphantly entering the main gates of Damascus, honorably accompanied by the Armenian King Hethum, a descendant of the ancient aristocratic nobility and Behomed VI, King of Antioch.

Here he sits majestically, comfortably located in a spacious, cool tent, set up for him as a sign of respect by the local crusader barons. And before him stands, kneeling, Sultan an-Nasir-Yusuf, captured in Gaza, the grandson of the famous Saladin, the winner of the crusaders.

Persian medieval miniature. Battle of two warriors. Early 15th century Persian-Mongolian school of painting. Image by Burstein Collection/CORBIS

But Kit Buka was only one of many noyons - the prisons of Hulagu Khan. And Hulagu Khan himself was only the ruler of one of the wings of the Great Mongol Empire. At that time, this empire was comparable only to a boundless ocean and an immense sky. This was the moment of her highest power; she was at the zenith of her glory. At the same time, the last round of this power was coming. The inevitable sunset was approaching.

There are many cases in history when seemingly insignificant events turn its course in a different direction. In this case, it is associated with a Frankish knight, nicknamed Long-Legged Julien, ruler of the city of Sidon.

During the Crusades, the barons who came from Europe were famous for their treachery, greed and unscrupulousness. Long-legged Julien was no different from them. The Mongols, wherever they went, established their own rules, the strictest discipline, inexorably suppressing any violation. The arbitrariness of the barons was put to an end. That's why the barons hid - they seemed to have reconciled, because the Mongols are stronger and are going to war against the Muslims, their sworn enemies. However, greed failed the barons. And, as it turned out later, not only them, but the entire Christian world.

It happened that one day Keith Buka received a report that at first he could not believe. It would seem that the barons loyal to him stole all the reserve herds of horses, slaughtering the soldiers guarding them - simply put, they committed a robbery. This has never happened before, to encroach on the horses of your actual allies, while a common enemy stands at the doorstep. Impossible to believe. This is more than a violation of allied relations, it is not even a violation of neutrality. This is a treasonous act.

Louis IX with his troops on the Crusade. Photo - Wikipedia.

The treachery was committed against Keith Book, a professing Nestorian Christian, in favor of a common Islamic enemy. It’s the same as turning your face away from your religion, at that very, perhaps, only real historical moment when Jerusalem, the place where the Holy of Holies was kept, the Holy Sepulcher, was at arm’s length. One joint campaign, and Jerusalem would have been returned to the Christian world. Such a stupid act cannot happen!

Again, betraying the Mongols at the height of their power means putting your own head in a noose. You can turn away from the Mongols, you can turn to the Mamluks, but will they accept them...

Kit Buka Noyon did not want to believe in treason and therefore sent his grandson, accompanied by a small detachment of 200 people, to Sidon to meet with Julien in order to eliminate the misunderstanding and return the herds of horses.

But a thief steals in order to steal, a robber robs in order to rob. It would be hard to expect Julien to say: “Excuse me, did these horses belong to the Mongols? I didn’t even know.” The soul of a thief remains a thief. Even worse: as the Mongols say, “a shamed person can even go as far as murder” - Long-legged Julien stabbed Kit Buk’s grandson (some sources say his son) along with the soldiers accompanying him, and ordered the horses to be driven to the seashore in Acre. He drove closer to the Mamluks, and agreed on this with the barons of Acre and Tire. What kind of barons are there - nobles of noble blood - “murderers and thieves of noble blood.”

Enraged by an act unthinkable for the Mongols, Kit Buka led his army to Sidon and besieged it. Although Long-Legged Julien was treacherous and unprincipled, he could not be denied knightly courage. Desperately he defended his city, but in the end he and his entourage were forced to board a ship and flee to the island of Cyprus. The Mongols did not have ships to chase him.

In retaliation, Sidon was destroyed and burned to the ground. It turned out that Julien exchanged his city for herds of horses. The price for the herds turned out to be expensive. But their cost did not stop there.

The crusaders, who showed themselves to be insignificant horse thieves, not only received the burning of Sidon, but subsequently lost all the lands that belonged to them in Syria. And one by one they themselves were destroyed by those to whom they sold the horses. Ultimately, the Crusaders' presence in the Middle East was completely lost. This will be written about here later.

The ashes of Sidon, which until recently was the main support of Christianity in the Middle East, scattered throughout Syria, aroused the anger of the barons of Acre and Tours.

Continuation - on ARD.

It is no secret that for many years it has been the Western powers that have been moving forward scientific progress, while the powers of the Islamic world are playing the role of catching up. But less than eight centuries ago, everything was completely different: brilliant Muslim scientists stood at the forefront of the progress of all mankind, while the medieval European kingdoms were mired in the abyss of ignorance and fratricidal wars. What changed the course of scientific and technological progress so dramatically, throwing the eastern powers back centuries?

The city of Baghdad, located on the banks of the Tigris River, was founded in 762 AD, and by the 11th century it had become the largest economic and cultural center in the entire Middle East. Merchants from distant lands came to the fairs of Baghdad to show off the most outlandish goods, the city’s mosques amazed the traveler with their splendor, and the Abbasid Caliph, who ruled a huge state from Baghdad, was secretly considered the main ruler of all Muslim lands. By the middle of the 13th century, up to 3 million people lived in Baghdad - a huge number even for our time. But this was not what played the main role in the splendor and greatness of Baghdad. The city was a kind of capital of the pan-Muslim cultural space - a concentration of knowledge accumulated over hundreds of years. The Abbasid caliphs' loyalty to foreign religions and the patronage of science attracted scientists from all over the world to Baghdad, whose work was often ahead of their time in many areas of science. Let's list just a few of them.

In astronomy, in a short time, the world's largest observatory was created, the length of the earth's circumference was calculated with high accuracy, the rotation of the Earth around its axis and around the Sun was proven, spots appearing on the Sun were discovered, the duration of the solar year was calculated, which differs from today's data by only 24 seconds. Muslim geographers tirelessly added new ones to their atlases. geographical features, while recording their location using longitude and latitude, characterized the climatic zones of the lands within travel range.

Islamic scientists made a truly invaluable contribution to mathematics: without their achievements it is simply impossible to imagine modern science. Decimal counting systems, fractions, complex division operations and multiplication - all this was discovered by the outstanding Khorezmian mathematician Al-Khorezmi. By the way, the name of his work, “al-Jabr,” is what modern science is called “algebra.”

Muslim doctors deserve special admiration. While in European countries They continued to treat with herbal decoctions and prayers; eye surgeries were performed in Islamic medical institutions, restoring sight to hundreds of people.

Eastern philosophers, physicists, and biologists deserve no less attention. The listing of their achievements will take more than a dozen pages, but we cannot fail to note the founder of modern chemistry, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, from whose books European alchemists studied for a long time.

All this invaluable knowledge was spread throughout all Muslim lands and numerous universities located in major cities, but were mainly concentrated in impregnable Baghdad, which was tirelessly guarded by a garrison of 50,000 people. No one even thought that any of the enemies could crush the powerful Abbasid Caliphate, surrounded on all sides by loyal allies, who together could field over a million soldiers under the green banner.

But such enemies were found. In a swift whirlwind, the Mongol troops under the leadership of Genghis Khan swept across the lands of China and the endless Asian steppes, approaching the flourishing cities of the Middle East. The first state to fall at the hands of the Mongols was the state of Khorezm. The strongest state was defeated by nomads in less than one year. For some time, the Mongols took a break, but several times from 1238 to 1246 they violated the border of the caliphate, but it did not come to big clashes. Finally, in 1253 AD. Mongol Khan Munke planned to annex the lands of modern Iraq to his empire and began preparations for war.

A Mongol army under the command of Hulagu (Mongke's brother) crossed the border of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1257, facing the Caliph's significant forces. On the banks of the Tigris River, the Muslim army suffered a crushing defeat and retreated into the city, after which the Mongols approached the walls of the settlement. The invaders were ready to spare the entire city and its defenders if they surrendered, but the Caliph decided to be persistent and ordered the walls to be defended to the last soldier. The descendants of Genghis Khan did not give a second chance, and on January 29, 1257 they began to besiege the impregnable walls, which fell on February 10, 1258. The enlightened city was doomed - thousands of Mongol warriors burst into the streets, suppressing the resistance of the remnants of the caliph's garrison. After the destruction of the garrison, the invaders switched to civilians and numerous buildings inside the city. For a week, the sky over Baghdad was ablaze with numerous fires even at night, and the massacre of citizens did not stop for a minute.

The conquered cities had not known for a long time the cruelty that the Mongols demonstrated in those days. The winners did not know who they were cutting: a simple mason or a famous scientist. Children and women were not spared. According to modern estimates, up to a million residents could have died on the streets of the city! The Abbasid caliph, who had been watching the destruction of the capital all this time, was trampled to death by horses.

According to eyewitnesses, all manuscripts were taken out of libraries and burned on the banks of the Tigris River. There was also a reprisal against learned men, which is why the water in the river turned bloody black.

Finally, after 7 days, Hulagu gave the order to stop the sack of Baghdad, and he moved his headquarters from the leeward side of the city - the stench from the decaying corpses was unbearable, and only ruins remained from the once magnificent capital. It was during those fateful events that countless scrolls with scholarly texts were lost. The Mongols - free nomads and warriors - simply did not need all that knowledge accumulated over centuries of painstaking work. It took Baghdad more than a century to recover from the ruins, but it lost the title of world cultural and scientific capital forever.

European countries practically did not suffer from the Mongol invasion. The descendants of Genghis Khan undertook a reconnaissance campaign against the Catholic states, defeating knightly armies that outnumbered them along the way, but they limited themselves to reconnaissance only. According to the results, the Mongols abandoned the conquest of European lands due to the climatic characteristics of the new territory for them. While Eastern science was thrown back centuries and lost its foundation, European kingdoms took advantage of the current situation and seized the initiative in scientific and technological progress.

Thus, from 1258, the Golden Age of Islam began to fade. The lost knowledge could not be restored, and the isolated outstanding scientists who appeared could not fundamentally influence the situation - after all, Baghdad not only stored invaluable scientific data, but also controlled a wide network of schools and universities throughout the country. Let us quote a famous historian who expressed with unusual precision the consequences of the destruction of Baghdad for the entire Islamic world.

"Iraq 1258 significantly was different from modern. System channels supported more thousands years. Baghdad was brilliant intellectual center peace. Fall Baghdad was psychological blow, from whom Islamic world Not recovered. Islam closed up V to myself, became more conservative, intolerant To conflicts faith And reason. WITH looting Baghdad faded away intellectual beacon Islam. Scale losses was let's compare With destruction Athens Pericles And Aristotle. Mongols destroyed reclamation channels And left Iraq, which already Not recovered. »

( Stephen Dutch )

What would it be like modern world, if the Mongol khans had directed their tumens against the states of Europe, or had the Abbasid state managed to oppose the conquerors? Perhaps the scientific and economic centers of the world would be located in a completely different part of the world than they are now, and the political map of the world would have nothing in common with the modern one. History shows how events centuries ago radically change the world, surprise, and make you think.

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The fall of the capital of the Caliphate - Baghdad and Sham

Before we begin to describe the Battle of Ain Jalut, we consider it appropriate to briefly consider the socio-political situation in the Middle East at that time. In particular, after the fall of the capital of the Islamic Caliphate - Baghdad.

In 1250, Mongke was elected the fourth Great Khan of the Mongols. He set himself two main goals: to destroy the Ismailis in Iran and to extend his power over the rest of the Islamic world, right down to the most remote points of Egypt.

Munke entrusted this task to his brother Hulagu, to whom he donated the region of Persia and the western vilayets. After completing the first task, in February 1258, the Mongol armies besieged the capital of the Caliphate, Baghdad, then stormed and destroyed it. The caliph left the city and unconditionally surrendered into the hands of the Mongol leader after Hulagu guaranteed his safety. These tragic events ended with the murder of Caliph al-Mustasim. Then the cities of Hilla, Kufa, Wasit and Mosul capitulated. With the fall of Baghdad and the murder of Caliph al-Mustasim, the period of existence of the state of the Abbasid Caliphate, which lasted more than five centuries, ended.

The fall of Baghdad dealt a severe blow to Muslim civilization and culture. It was a center of sciences, literature and arts, rich in its scientists, theologians, writers, philosophers and poets. Thousands of theologians, writers and poets were killed in Baghdad, and those who managed to escape fled to Sham and Egypt. Libraries were burned, madrassas and institutes were destroyed, and Islamic historical and other monuments were destroyed. The unity of the Islamic world suffered a severe blow, and the unity of Muslims became impossible after the submission of many Muslim rulers to the Mongols.

Christians in various parts of the world rejoiced and welcomed Hulagu and his wife Tukuz Khatun, who professed Nestorian Christianity.

Naturally, the conquest of Iraq was to be followed by an attack on Sham. Sham at that time was under the dominance of three forces: Muslims represented by Ayyubid rulers and emirs, crusaders and Armenians in Cilicia.

Muslims ruled the cities of Mayafarikin, Karak, Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Damascus, and the Kayfa fortress. However, they felt the need to unite their forces, because each emir acted independently, which weakened their strength in the face of the Mongols.

As for the Western crusaders, they took a position of hesitation towards the Mongols and with an inclination towards the Muslims. Bohemond VI, Prince of Antioch, joined the Mongol movement, supported it and took part in it. Hethum, the king of Lesser Armenia in Cilicia, did the same. However, Bohemond VI decided to take this step only as the husband of Hethum’s daughter and his ally.

The Armenians in Cilicia entered into an alliance with the Mongols and pushed them to destroy the Abbasid Caliphate and the Ayyubids in Sham. They and the Mongols took part in the war against the Muslims. Khethum believed that the opportunity had come to rid Sham, and in particular Jerusalem, from the Muslims.

At that time, an-Nasir Yusuf, the ruler of Damascus and Aleppo, was the most powerful Ayyubid emir. He feared the Mongol offensive and assumed that sooner or later Hulagu and his army would capture Sham and that this country would not find anyone to protect it from the Mongols and Mamluks of Egypt. An-Nasir was at enmity with the latter, believing that power in Egypt and Sham, as the descendants of Salahuddin al-Ayubi, belonged to the Ayubids. Therefore, an-Nasir Yusuf refused to help al-Ashraf, the son of al-Malik al-Ghazi, the ruler of Mayafariqin, who asked for help in confronting the Mongols. He also sent his son al-Aziz Muhammad to Hulagu with gifts for him, expressing his submission and friendliness to him and asking him to provide military assistance to recapture Egypt from the hands of the Mamluks.

It is likely that Hulagu doubted the sincerity of an-Nasir because the latter did not come to him himself to demonstrate his friendship and submission to him and then ask for his alliance against the Mamluks in Egypt. Therefore, Hulagu sent a letter in which he commanded him to come to him and express his submission without any conditions or reservations. An-Nasir was not ready to establish close ties with the Mongols at that time, for he was subject to strong censure from the Muslim emirs due to his rapprochement with the Mongols. Therefore, he showed enmity towards Hulagu and went from Damascus to Karak and Shubak.

In 1259, Hulagu led his troops to capture the northwestern part of Sham. The cities of Mayafarikin, Nusaybin, Harran, Edessa, al-Bira and Harim fell under his onslaught. He then headed towards Aleppo and surrounded it on all sides. The garrison of the city under the leadership of al-Malik Turanshah ibn Salahuddin refused to surrender to the Mongol troops, and therefore in January 1260 it was decided to storm it. As a result, Aleppo came under Mongol rule.

As a result of these quick and decisive victories of the Mongols, the killings, expulsions and destruction that accompanied these successes, fear gripped all of Sham. Then an-Nasir Yusuf realized that he alone could not resist the forces of the Mongols, and decided to ask the Mamluks of Egypt for help.

The danger of the situation forced the ruler of Egypt, al-Malik al-Muzaffar Sayfuddin Qutuz (1259–1260), to forget the anger and hatred emanating from the deep-rooted enmity between himself and al-Malik an-Nasir, and accept his request for military assistance at the earliest possible time.

Kutuz was alarmed by the rapid advance of the Mongol troops. Therefore, he wanted to create an alliance through which he would strengthen the Islamic front, however, it is likely that he also wanted to deceive an-Nasir Yusuf in order to seize his possessions as well. This is supported by the fact that he was in no hurry to help him and tried to win over his followers to his side when they headed to Egypt. Qutuz's cunning is also revealed in the contents of his letter, which he sent to an-Nasir Yusuf. In the letter, Kutuz informs him of the acceptance of his proposal, and even considers an-Nasir, as a descendant of Salahuddin, the ruler of all possessions that were previously subordinate to the Ayyubids, including Egypt. He also added that for him there was only one leader, and promised to transfer power over Egypt to an-Nasir if he wished to come to Cairo. He even offered to send an army to Damascus to save him the hassle of arriving in Cairo himself if he doubted the sincerity of his intentions.

When the Mongols approached Damascus, the city's defenders had already abandoned it. Also, an-Nasir Yusuf did not try to defend the city, he left it and went to Gaza along with his Mamluks from among the Nasirites and Azizites and a number of Bahrit Mamluks, among whom was the famous commander Baybars al-Bundukdari. An-Nasyr wanted to be closer to the help that Kutuz promised him. He left Damascus under the leadership of his vizier Zainuddin al-Hafizi.

The noble people of Damascus, taking into account the destruction and destruction of the population that occurred in the cities that resisted the Mongols, decided to surrender the city to Hulagu. And in fact, the Mongol army entered the city in February 1260 without shedding blood. However, the citadel resisted them. Then the Mongols stormed it by force and destroyed it. This happened in May 1260 from the birth of Christ.

Thus, Hulagu prepared for the further conquest of the Islamic world, including Egypt.

To be continued.

• 1 Preparing for the hike
  • 1.1 Troop numbers
  • 1.2 Christian participation
• 2 Troops march
• 3 Defeat of the Nizari
• 4 Conquest of Baghdad
• 5 Syrian campaign
• 6 Kitbook Corps Actions
• 7 Notes
• 8 Bibliography
  • 8.1 Sources
  • 8.2 Literature
• 9 Links

Preparing for the hike

Mongke, proclaimed kagan of the Mongol state in 1251, decided to continue the wars against the Song Empire and the unconquered states of the Middle East. One of the reasons for the Middle Eastern campaign was a complaint submitted to Möngke by the residents of Qazvin and mountainous areas Persia for the harm caused to them by the Nizari Ismailis (known in the West as Assassins, and in the East as Mulhids, that is, heretics). According to Rashid ad-Din, “since many of the heretics who sought justice for injustice handed themselves over to the noblest discretion, Mengu-kaan in the year of the bull sent his brother Hulagu Khan to the region of Tajiks against the heretics.” The Mongol military commander Baiju, based in northern Iran, also complained to the Khan about the Ismailis and the Baghdad Caliph. Mongke ordered Hulagu to destroy the mountain fortresses of the Ismailis, conquer the Lurs and Kurds, and conquer the possessions of the caliph if he did not submit.

Number of troops

Juvaini, and after him Rashid ad-Din, report that each ulus was supposed to send two people out of every ten warriors to Hulagu’s army. But this can only be a figure of speech meaning “a very large army,” since the same expression is found in Juvaini under 1246, when Guyuk sent Iljiday to war against the Ismailis.

The anonymous author of the work Shajarat al-atrak (XV century) writes that Mongke gave Hulagu one fifth of all Mongols fit for service, and this amounted to 120 thousand people. Mu'in ad-Din Natanzi reports that Hulagu set out from Mongolia accompanied by 70 thousand people. And according to the testimony of the monk Magakia (Grigor Aknertsi), an Armenian historian of the 13th century, the number of Hulagu’s troops reached 70 thousand: “seven Khan’s sons came from the east, each with a fog of horsemen, and the fog means 10,000.”

Modern researchers are trying to calculate the size of Hulagu’s army based on the number of military leaders mentioned in sources - 15-17 people. If every military leader is a temnik, then there should have been 150-170 thousand people in the Mongol army. However, the tumen only theoretically included 10 thousand warriors; the actual number could be less.

Chinese engineers were assigned to the army to maintain stone-, arrow-, and flame-throwing machines; The number of Chinese is estimated differently, from one thousand to four. In addition to Baiju's troops under High Command The troops of Dair Bahadur stationed in Kashmir crossed over to Hulagu. Careful preparations were made along the army's route: bridges were built across the rivers, roads were repaired; the tribes roaming the territory through which the army was supposed to move were driven from their places; Huge warehouses of food and fodder have been stockpiled.

Christian participation

Hulagu was sympathetic to Buddhists, but generally used adherents different religions for their political purposes. However, his eldest wife, the influential Dokuz Khatun, was a Christian and patroness of Christians. Naiman Kitbuka was a Nestorian. Finally, the king of Cilician Armenia, Hethum I, entered into an alliance with the Mongols, who in 1248 sent his older brother Smbat Sparapet (Smbat Gundstable) to the Mongol capital Karakorum, and later, at the invitation of the great Khan Munke, he himself set off. After spending fifteen days visiting the khan, having received exemption from taxes and guarantees of military assistance, the Armenian king returned to Cilicia. He was also able to attract the Antiochian prince Bohemond to an alliance with the Mongols, marrying his daughter to him. The Mongol army was also joined by Christians from the Middle East, Assyrians and Greeks, who saw the Mongols as liberators.

Troop performance

Hulagu left Mongolia in October 1253, but moved extremely slowly. In 1254 he was in Almalyk and Ulug-Iva with the ruler of the Chagatai ulus Ergene-Khatun, and in September 1255 he was received near Samarkand by the Mongol governor of Maverannahr Mas "ud-bek, the son of Mahmud Yalavach. Such a slow movement was associated with the opposition of the head of the Ulus Jochi Batu, who did not want to let imperial army beyond the Amu Darya, the territory beyond which he considered as the sphere of influence of the Jochids. Not the least role was played by the position of Berke, Batu’s brother, who stated: “We built Mengukan, and how does he reward us for this? By repaying us with evil against our friends, violating our treaties... and coveting the possessions of the Caliph, my ally... this is something vile.” Mongke did not want to quarrel with Batu, so until the death of the latter (1255/1256) a decisive offensive was not undertaken. However, back in August 1252, an advance guard under the command of Kit-Buga-noyon, numbering 12 thousand, set out from Mongolia, which from March 1253 acted against the Ismailis in Kukhistan, besieging the fortress of Girdekukh.

Defeat of the Nizari

In January 1256, Hulagu, having replenished his army with Jochid units provided by Sartak, crossed the Amu Darya and besieged the Nizari fortresses in Kuhistan (Elburz). Not relying only on military force, Hulagu also launched a diplomatic offensive, demanding surrender from the Nizari imam Rukn-ad Din Khurshah. Among the Ismailis there was a pro-Mongol party, to which belonged the famous Persian scientist Nasir ad-Din al-Tusi and the doctor Muwaffik ad-Dowle, the grandfather of Rashid ad-Din, the famous Hulaguid minister of state. Under the influence of this party, Khurshah agreed to surrender the fortresses in exchange for the preservation of life and possessions. However, as soon as Hulagu felt that Khurshah was trying to gain time and was delaying negotiations, he began an assault on the Meymundiz fortress, where the imam was located. As a result, Khurshah was forced to surrender. Hulagu sent him to Mongolia, to Mongke, who was supposed to decide the fate of Khurshah. On the way, in Central Asia, on March 9, 1257, Rukn ad-din Khurshakh, apparently on the secret order of Mongke, was killed. At the same time, Nasir ad-din al-Tusi became Hulagu's advisor and personal astrologer.

Most of the Ismaili fortresses in Quhistan surrendered without a fight within a year and were destroyed. Only a few, including the famous Alamut, which capitulated on December 15, 1256, offered little resistance. The hardest thing for the Mongols was during the siege of Girdekukh, which lasted for years.

The historian Juvaini, who served Hulagu, became acquainted with the rich book depository of Alamut. The manuscript “Serguzasht-i Seyidna”, dedicated to the life of Hassan ibn Sabbah, stored there, was used by Juvaini in his work. He managed to save the library from looting, but he personally burned the part of the records that contained Ismaili dogma.

Conquest of Baghdad

Having finished with the Nizaris, Hulagu demanded submission from the Baghdad caliph al-Mustasim. The caliph, having arrogantly rejected the ultimatum of the Mongol commander, did not, however, have the strength to resist him. Among the dignitaries surrounding the caliph, there was no unity regarding the measures that needed to be taken to defend the country. In addition, al-Mustasim refused to pay the wages of the mercenary army, and it was disbanded.

The Abbasid field army under the command of Fath ad-din ibn Kerr was defeated on the banks of the Tigris by the troops of Baiju. At the beginning of 1258, Hulagu, Baiju and Kit-Buga completed the encirclement of Baghdad. First the siege weapons came into action, and then the assault began. By mid-February the city was in Mongol hands. As the massacre of the inhabitants began, Christians were spared (at the request of the Nestorian Dokuz-Khatun, the eldest wife of Hulagu) and Jews, whom the Mongols considered as their allies, since they were oppressed under the caliphs. Al-Musta'sim, who surrendered, was forced to show the secret treasuries of the Abbasid rulers on the orders of Hulagu, and then, on February 20, he was executed.

During the same period, the Uruktu noyon was sent to capture the city of Irbil. Its ruler, Taj ad-Din ibn Salaya, submitted to the Mongols, but the Kurds defending the fortress refused to surrender. The long siege did not bring success. Only the summer heat forced the Kurds to leave Irbil, and it was occupied by an ally of the Mongols, Badr ad-Din Lulu, atabek of Mosul.

Syrian campaign

After the conquest of Baghdad, Hulagu settled in the vicinity of Maragha in East Azerbaijan. In August 1258, he received here Muslim rulers who came to express their submission, in particular, Badr ad-Din Lu'lu, atabek Sa'd from Fars, the brothers Izz ad-Din Kay-Kavus II and Rukn ad-Din Kilic-Arslan IV from Koniya Sultanate. Badr ad-Din Lu'lu sent his son Salih to serve Hulagu.

On September 12, 1259, Hulagu's army marched west. the forces of Kitbuki were in the vanguard, Baiju and Shiktur were on the right wing, Sunjak was on the left, and Hulagu himself commanded the center. The Mongols occupied Ahlat and defeated the Kurds in the surrounding mountains. Salih was sent to conquer Amid (now Diyarbakir), and Hulagu captured Edessa. Then Nisibin and Harran were taken.

The Mongols crossed the Euphrates and called on the governor of Al-Mu'azzam Turan Shah to surrender the city. response to refusal On January 18, 1260, they besieged Aleppo. The siege was also attended by the troops of Hulagu's Christian allies - Hethum of Armenia and Bohemond of Antioch. The city was occupied for a week, but the citadel held out until February 14 (according to other sources, 26). After its capture, the Mongols carried out a massacre, which was stopped six days later by order of Hulagu. Of the defenders of the citadel, only one Armenian goldsmith was left alive. Hethum burned down the Aleppo mosque, saving the Jacobite church. Hulagu returned to the Armenian king some regions and castles taken from him by the Aleppo rulers. Bohemond was given the Aleppo lands, which had been in the hands of Muslims since the time of Salah ad-Din.

On January 31, the Ayyubid Sultan an-Nasir Yusuf, having learned about the fall of Aleppo, retreated with an army from Damascus to Gaza. Damascus surrendered to the Mongols without a fight, and on February 14 (according to other sources - March 1), Kitbuka entered the city, appointing a Mongol governor there.

Actions of the Kitbuki Corps

After receiving news of the death of the Great Khan Mongke, Hulagu with the main part of the army retreated to Transcaucasia (June 1260). Kitbuka was left with relatively small forces (10-20 thousand or even 10-12 thousand, including reinforcements from the allied Armenians and Georgians). Hulagu left his commander with such a small army, apparently having incorrectly assessed the strength of his opponents in Egypt; he may have been misled by information received from prisoners captured in Syria. On the other hand, Hulagu was forced to take the lion's share of the army, probably realizing that soon after Mongke's death a conflict with the Jochids would inevitably break out over disputed territories in Transcaucasia. Kitbuka was tasked with preserving what had already been won (information from Baybars al-Mansouri). According to Ibn al-Amid, he also had to keep a vigilant eye on the Franks of the coastal crusader states. Hulagu himself, in his letter to Louis of France (1262), reports that Kitbuka was ordered to conquer the Ismaili fortresses in northern Syria.

Kitbuqa continued his conquests from Syria to the south - to Palestine, capturing Baalbek, al-Subeiba and Ajlun, the Mongols entered Samaria and brutally dealt with the Ayyubid garrison of Nablus. Further, Mongol troops occupied Gaza without hindrance, the Ayyubid Sultan an-Nasir Yusuf was captured and sent to Hulagu, Mongol garrisons of 1000 people were stationed in Gaza and Nablus. An army of Egyptian Mamluks under the command of Kutuz and Baybars moved towards Kitbuka. On September 3, 1260, the Mongol army was defeated at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Kitbuga was captured and executed.

Notes

1. Approximately corresponds to 1253 AD. e.
2. Rashid ad-Din. Collection of chronicles. - 1960. - T. 2. - P. 144.
3. Rashid ad-Din. Collection of chronicles. - 1946. - T. 3. - P. 22.
4. 1 2 Amitai-Preiss R. Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281. - P. 15.
5. History of the Mongols monk Magakia, XIII century / Trans. K. P. Patkanova. - M., 1871. - P. 24.
6. 1 2 Rashid ad-Din. Collection of chronicles. - 1946. - T. 3. - P. 23.
7. History of Iran from ancient times to the end of the 18th century. - L., 1958. - P. 185.
8. Vernadsky G.V. Chapter II. Mongol Empire// Mongols and Rus'. - Tver, M., 1997.
9. Gumilyov L.N. Searches for a fictional kingdom. P. 224.
10. From the works of Ibnfadlallah Elomari // Collection of materials related to the history of the Golden Horde / Trans. Tizenhausen V. G. - St. Petersburg, 1884. - T. 1. - P. 246.
11. The Cambridge history of Iran. - 1968. - T. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods. - P. 351.
12. Amitai-Preiss R. Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281. - P. 40.
13. Amitai-Preiss, p. 32.
14. Jean Richard, p.428
15. Amin Maalouf, p.264
16. Tyerman, p.806
17. Amin Maalouf, p.262

Bibliography

Sources

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• History of the Mongols monk Magakia, XIII century / Trans. K. P. Patkanova. - M., 1871.
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Literature

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Links

• Amitai R. Hulagu khan (English). Encyclopædia Iranica (15 December 2004). Retrieved April 19, 2010. Archived from the original on February 15, 2012.
• Venegoni L. Hülägü"s Campaign in the West(1256-1260) (English). Transoxiana. Journal Libre de Estudios Orientales. Retrieved April 19, 2010. Archived from the original on March 12, 2012.

Middle Eastern campaign Mongol studies