Evolution of life cycles. Evolution of life cycles What is the fundamental difference between life cycles?

1. General provisions
This personal data processing policy has been drawn up in accordance with the requirements of Federal Law dated July 27, 2006. No. 152-FZ “On Personal Data” and determines the procedure for processing personal data and measures to ensure the security of personal data Alpha Partner (hereinafter referred to as the Operator).

1. The operator sets his the most important goal and as a condition for carrying out its activities, respect for the rights and freedoms of man and citizen when processing his personal data, including the protection of the rights to privacy, personal and family secrets.
2. This Operator’s policy regarding the processing of personal data (hereinafter referred to as the Policy) applies to all information that the Operator can obtain about visitors to the website http://ap-sro.ru.

2. Basic concepts used in the Policy

1. Automated processing of personal data – processing of personal data using computer technology;
2. Blocking of personal data – temporary cessation of processing of personal data (except for cases where processing is necessary to clarify personal data);
3. Website – a collection of graphic and information materials, as well as computer programs and databases that ensure their availability on the Internet at the network address http://ap-sro.ru;
4. Personal data information system - a set of personal data contained in databases and ensuring their processing information technology and technical means;
5. Depersonalization of personal data - actions as a result of which it is impossible to determine without the use of additional information the ownership of personal data to a specific User or other subject of personal data;
6. Processing of personal data – any action (operation) or set of actions (operations) performed using automation tools or without the use of such means with personal data, including collection, recording, systematization, accumulation, storage, clarification (updating, changing), extraction, use, transfer (distribution, provision, access), depersonalization, blocking, deletion, destruction of personal data;
7. Operator – government agency, municipal body, legal entity or individual, independently or jointly with other persons organizing and (or) carrying out the processing of personal data, as well as determining the purposes of processing personal data, the composition of personal data to be processed, actions (operations) performed with personal data;
8. Personal data – any information relating directly or indirectly to a specific or identified User of the website http://ap-sro.ru;
9. User – any visitor to the website http://ap-sro.ru;
10. Providing personal data – actions aimed at disclosing personal data to a certain person or a certain circle of persons;
11. Dissemination of personal data - any actions aimed at disclosing personal data to an indefinite number of persons (transfer of personal data) or to familiarize with personal data of an unlimited number of persons, including the publication of personal data in the media mass media, posting in information and telecommunication networks or providing access to personal data in any other way;
12. Cross-border transfer of personal data – transfer of personal data to the territory of a foreign state to an authority of a foreign state, a foreign individual or a foreign legal entity;
13. Destruction of personal data – any actions as a result of which personal data are destroyed irrevocably with the impossibility of further restoration of the content of personal data in the personal data information system and (or) as a result of which the material media of personal data are destroyed.

3. The Operator may process the following personal data of the User

1. Phone numbers;
2. The site also collects and processes anonymized data about visitors (including cookies) using Internet statistics services (Yandex Metrica and Google Analytics and others).
3. The above data below in the text of the Policy are combined general concept Personal data.

4. Purposes of processing personal data

1. The purpose of processing the User's personal data is to inform the User about the services offered.
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3. Anonymized data of Users, collected using Internet statistics services, serves to collect information about the actions of Users on the site, improve the quality of the site and its content.

5. Legal grounds processing of personal data

1. The Operator processes the User’s personal data only if it is filled out and/or sent by the User independently through special forms located on the website http://ap-sro.ru. By filling out the appropriate forms and/or sending his personal data to the Operator, the User expresses his consent to this Policy.
2. The Operator processes anonymized data about the User if this is allowed in the User's browser settings (saving cookies and using JavaScript technology are enabled).

6. The procedure for collecting, storing, transferring and other types of processing of personal data

The security of personal data processed by the Operator is ensured by implementing legal, organizational and technical measures necessary to fully comply with the requirements of current legislation in the field of personal data protection.

1. The operator ensures the safety of personal data and takes all possible measures to prevent access to personal data by unauthorized persons.
2. The User's personal data will never, under any circumstances, be transferred to third parties, except in cases related to the implementation of current legislation.
3. If inaccuracies in personal data are identified, the User can update them independently by sending a notification to the Operator to the Operator's email address [email protected] marked “Updating personal data”.
4. The period for processing personal data is unlimited. The User may at any time withdraw his consent to the processing of personal data by sending a notification to the Operator via email to the Operator's email address [email protected] marked “Withdrawal of consent to the processing of personal data.”

7. Cross-border transfer of personal data

1. Before the start of cross-border transfer of personal data, the operator is obliged to make sure that the foreign state to whose territory it is intended to transfer personal data provides reliable protection rights of personal data subjects.
2. Cross-border transfer of personal data to the territory of foreign states that do not meet the above requirements can only be carried out if there is written consent of the subject of personal data to the cross-border transfer of his personal data and/or execution of an agreement to which the subject of personal data is a party.

8. Final provisions

1. The User can receive any clarification on issues of interest regarding the processing of his personal data by contacting the Operator via email [email protected].
2. This document will reflect any changes to the Operator’s personal data processing policy. The policy is valid indefinitely until it is replaced new version.
3. The current version of the Policy is freely available on the Internet at

Lecture I. The problem of self-reproduction of biological systems.
The logical paradox of self-reproduction (“self-reversal”). Its reality: examples (insufficient template reproduction of nucleotide sequences and/or reproduction of closed catalytic chains).
Conservative and non-conservative reproduction. Examples. Conservative reproduction is the only possible definition of self-reproduction of the “organism as a whole.” Non-conservative reproduction – reproduction of parts of an organism (ontogenesis). Selection as the only logically possible combination of conservative self-reproduction with evolution.
Structure and information. Information and structural components of self-reproduction of phenotypes (an example with the reproduction of phage Q?), difficulties in distinguishing them. There are similar difficulties in distinguishing these components in higher organisms: the absence of fundamental differences between somatic cells and cells of the germinal tract, syncretism of genotype and phenotype. The impossibility of correctly defining selection without distinguishing between the informational and structural components of self-reproduction.
The solution to the main paradox of self-reproduction is von Neumann's theorem. Genotype, phenotype and ontogenesis as logically necessary elements of self-reproduction of living systems. The main consequences of the theorem: the independence of the accuracy of reproduction of phenotypes from their structure and the possibility of introducing the concept of fitness, i.e. the fundamental possibility of selective evolution. The evolutionary initial phenotype is the structure with the help of which information is reproduced.

Lecture II. Elementary life cycle.
The fundamental difference between the elementary life cycle and physical and biochemical cycles. Origin of biological information: separation of genotype and phenotype in connection with the occurrence genetic code. The transition from reproduction of a structure to self-reproduction of its life cycle (when the structure that reproduces information does not change it). Fidelity of reproduction as a single (and only) measure of phenotype fitness and value genetic information in the absence of environmental restrictions, when competition between life cycles arises only due to errors in self-reproduction (errors in the reproduction of a cycle give rise to its competitors). Cycles and hypercycles, the advantages of hypercycles: cooperation of polymerases and, most importantly, the emergence of its own variability in the hypercycle.
The emergence of competition in life cycles as the variability of self-reproduction systems decreases and environmental resources are exhausted. Difference between passive and active competition of elementary life cycles (hypercycles). Mathematical description of passive and active competition.
The main consequences of the occurrence unified system genetic self-reproduction of hypercycles - the possibility of self-reproduction at the intra-individual and supra-individual levels of organization. Accordingly, new directions of variability arise - the shuffling of genes within hypercycles and the merging of hypercycles.
Finally, the emergence of competition leads to the structuring of fitness - the separation of the reproductive component and the survival component. Accordingly, alternative reproductive strategies appear - active (reproduction at risk of life) and passive - surviving unfavorable conditions.

Lecture IV. A generalized mathematical model of cooperative self-reproduction of two genes with poor promoters and overlapping regulatory zones. " Competitive exclusion“at the intra-individual level, the possibility of regular reproduction (“cloning”) of alternative dynamic states of the hypercycle. The emergence of ontogenetic information, i.e., fixation of the development path based on random choice. The emergence of competence to differentiate developmental paths and, as a consequence, the ontogenetic norm of reaction - the ability to form adaptive modifications. Adaptive modifications of prokaryotes: transition between lytic and lysogenic modes in phages, SOS system of bacteria, cellular hunger system, adaptive and constitutive syntheses, formation of operons. The general sequence of ontogeny formation: the emergence of a self-reproduction system? formation of hypercycles? formation of a scan? the emergence of competence to switch self-reproduction modes? the emergence of adaptive modifications. Evolution of prokaryotic life cycles based on fixation of modifications.
Criticism of von Neumann's theorem. Rough (physical) and non-rough (information) systems. Von Neumann's theorem applies to non-rough systems, without resolving the question of their origin. Mixed nature of biological systems: rough and non-rough methods of encoding genetic information (regulatory zones and reading frames). Form as information, non-rough systems can arise only on the basis of initial roughness.
The main difference between the structural and dynamic organization of prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the extension of the principle of unfolding beyond the chromosome, while the chromosome itself ceases to be an unfolding. Spatiotemporal segregation of the nucleus and cytoplasm, translation and transcription, splicing.

Lecture V. Life cycles of Protozoa. The emergence of new methods of self-reproduction at the intra-individual and supra-individual levels of organization: the emergence of the CMF, the center for the formation of microtubules, and the emergence of a single polar axis of movement and self-reproduction of the cell (for example, the asexual reproduction of ciliates). Self-reproduction as ontogenesis. Examples of ontogenetic regulations (the part forms the whole). The amoeboid form and the flagellar form as modulations (modifications) of the cellular phenotype (prototypes of mesenchymal and epithelial cells of multicellular organisms). Microtubule (MT) doublets as cell analogues multicellular organism. Reproduction of MT as micro-sweep. Examples of non-genetic inheritance of structures in ciliates.
Directions of evolution depending on the fate of the CFM: single (nuclear) CFM (most lower Protozoa), doubling of the CFM (higher flagellates), and MT polymerization with the disappearance of the CFM (ciliates). In the first case, a single-celled organism is most vulnerable during reproduction (metazoan mitosis and the corresponding mitotic cycle), and is “saved” at the cost of complicating its life cycle.
Classification of life cycles according to the biological meaning of the alternation of phases: alternation of dividing and nomadic (or forming cysts) cells, with the insertion of palintomic divisions and (or) growth. When the haploid generation is dominant: n** (or *)? gametes* ? copulation? 2n (cyst) ?meiosis** ? n. With the dominance of the diploid generation: 2n* ? meiosis (cyst) ? gametes (dispersal) ? copulation**? 2n. IN general view: trophozooid** ? zoospores *? trophozooid (* – growth, ** – palintomic divisions). This is nothing more than a prototype of the Metazoan life cycle.
Idealized life cycle of Metazoa: syngamy, palintomic phase (flagellate cells), monotomous phase (amoeboid cells), gamete formation.

Lecture VI. Origin and evolution of life cycles of Metazoa. Life cycles of intermediate forms (Volvox and social amoebas). A common feature is the refusal of some cells to reproduce themselves in favor of other cells. For the formation of the life cycle, differentiation of sexual and somatic cells not required. Ontogenesis of Metazoa as creation new form supra-individual self-reproduction (a special case of the emergence of social behavior), based on cell differentiation. Selfish forms of cell reproduction in Volvox and social amoebae. Cellular differentiation as a spatial unfolding of the cell cycle (extension of the unfolding principle to the supracellular level of organization). Epithelium and mesenchyme as primary tissues.
Syngamy as cooperation of egg (mitochondria, yolk) and sperm (CFM). Blastula as the primary form of the dispersing larva (“multicellular zoospore”), its evolutionary fate. Gastrulation is a metamorphosis of the primary larva, involving all cells (many sponges), or part of the cells (sponges, coelenterates and higher Metazoa). Evolutionary fate of gastrula (embryonic tissues). Isolation of the germinal tract as a secondary phenomenon. Distinguish between sex, stem, semi-stem and differentiated cells. Standard organ composition in adult Metazoa. The danger of selfish reproduction.
Metagenesis as an evolutionarily initial form of life cycle variability. Evolution of life cycles based on their own individual variability and intra-individual variability (neoteny and acceleration, paedomorphosis and hypermorphosis). Expansion and collapse of the life cycle (deembryoization and embryonication). Transition from the phases of the life cycle to successive stages of ontogenesis.

Compiled by Prof. V.G. Cherdantsev

The fundamental differences between sexual and asexual reproduction are that sexual reproduction:

ensures genetic constancy of the species

occurs only in higher organisms

provides combinative variability

The biological significance of meiosis (sexual process) lies in the formation of cells involved in sexual reproduction, in maintaining the constancy of the species number of chromosomes; creating conditions for combinative variability and arbitrary divergence of parental chromosomes into gametes. Spores of mosses, ferns and some other groups of plants are formed by the meiotic route. Violation of meiosis leads to pathological changes.

How many sperm are formed as a result of spermatogenesis from two primary germ cells?

Spermatogenesis is the process of transformation of diploid spermatogonia (precursors of germ cells) into sperm. After the second division, spermatozoa begin the second meiotic division, which results in the formation of 4 haploid germ cells. After differentiation, they become mature sperm. Based on this, from two primary germ cells as a result of spermatogenesis, eight sperm.

The difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis is that:

in oogenesis four equal gametes are formed, and in spermatogenesis one

in oogenesis one full-fledged gamete is formed, and in spermatogenesis - four

eggs contain more chromosomes than sperm

Features of spermatogenesis and oogenesis are that during the formation of sperm, each of four daughter cells are complete and capable of fertilizing the egg. But during the maturation of eggs, meiotic division occurs differently: the cytoplasm is distributed unevenly between daughter cells. At the same time, only one from the resulting four cells it becomes a viable egg.

How many divisions of the original cell occur during gametogenesis?

In gametogenesis, the original cell divided once.

The number of germ cells formed in the body can most likely depend on:

stock nutrients in a cage

age of the individual

probability of gametes meeting each other

Asexual reproduction predominates in the life cycle:

hydra

sharks

chafer

In the life of a hydra asexual reproduction dominates above the genital Asexual reproduction occurs by budding. A protrusion appears on the body of the hydra, which captures the ecto- and endoderm. The resulting bud increases in size, a constriction forms at its base, and a mouth opening appears, surrounded by tentacles. The formed young hydra buds off from the mother.

Gametes in ferns are formed:

on the leaves

in disputes

on the shoots

The gametophyte in a fern begins with the development of a tiny pale green chain of algae-like cells. Then a flat heart-shaped filmy structure is formed from it - outgrowth with numerous rhizoids in the center of the lower surface. There, on the lower surface, antheridia and archegonia are formed. Antheridia usually appear earlier, and archegonia later. Numerous spirally twisted, multiflagellate spermatozoa are formed in the antheridia.

Endosperm in flowering plants is formed during fusion.

sperm and eggs

polar nucleus and sperm

two polar nuclei and sperm

After one of the sperm fertilizes the egg, a diploid zygote is formed (the embryo of a new plant organism develops from it). Second sperm fuses with two polar nuclei(or with a central diploid nucleus), forming a triploid cell, from which nutritional tissue, the endosperm, subsequently arises. Its cells contain a supply of nutrients necessary for the development of the plant embryo.

Double fertilization occurs in.

cuckoo flax moss

Scots pine

chamomile officinalis

Chamomile belongs to the Angiosperms department, or Flowering plants, and pine and moss belong to different groups. Flowering plants typically double fertilization.

A form of reproduction in which hereditary information offspring is identical to the mother.

sexual

asexual

budding

Asexual reproduction- the oldest form of reproduction on our planet. It consists in the division of a single-celled organism and the formation of daughter individuals. More often, this form of reproduction is found in prokaryotes, plants, fungi and protozoa, and is also observed in some animal species.

A form of reproduction in which new organism develops from a zygote.

sexual

asexual

both answers are correct

At sexually During reproduction, an individual of each next generation arises as a result of the fusion of two specialized haploid cells - gametes. Most often, gametes are formed in special organs of male and female individuals. As a result of fertilization, the chromosomes of the egg and sperm end up in the same nucleus, and a zygote is formed - the first cell of a new organism.

The significance of crossing over in meiosis.

increases sperm count

reduces the number of eggs

During crossing over, identical sections of homologous chromosomes are exchanged. This increases genetic diversity of germ cells, since as a result of this process chromosomes are formed that carry the genes of both the father and the mother. Thus, meiosis underlies combinative variation.

What is the advantage of double fertilization in angiosperms?

in the formation of mechanical tissue

in the formation of nutritional tissue

in the formation of the embryo

Comparing two methods of reproduction - asexual and sexual, we can conclude that asexual reproduction leads to the appearance of individuals that are genetic copies of the parent. This method is ideal for propagation in stable, unchanging conditions. environment. In contrast, sexual reproduction promotes recombination of parental genes and hence diversity in the offspring. This method of reproduction is very important for the evolutionary progress of the species ( prosperity of the species) in constantly changing conditions of existence.