trait inheritance. Dominant and recessive inheritance Which genes show their effect in the first

3 hours (180 minutes) are allotted for the certification work in biology. The work consists of 3 parts, including 34 tasks.

Part 1 includes 24 tasks (A1-A24). Each question has 4 possible answers, one of which is correct.

Part 2 contains 6 tasks (B1-B6): 2 - with the choice of three correct answers out of six, 2 - for correspondence, 2 - for establishing the sequence of biological processes, phenomena, objects.

Part 3 contains 4 open-ended tasks (С1–С4).

Complete the tasks in the order in which they are given. If a task is difficult for you, skip it. Return to missed tasks if you have time.

For completing tasks of various complexity, from one to three points are given. The points you get for completed tasks are summed up. Try to complete as many tasks as possible and score the largest number points.

We wish you success!

Part 1(A)

A1. What science uses the twin research method?

2) genetics

3) selection

4) taxonomy

A2. Specify the wording of one of the provisions cell theory.

1) plant cells differ from animal cells in the presence of chloroplasts

2) cell - a unit of structure, life and development of organisms

3) prokaryotic cells do not have a well-formed nucleus

2) infusoria shoe

4) freshwater hydra

A5. What genes show their effect in the first hybrid generation?

1) allelic

2) dominant

3) recessive

4) linked

A6. Fungus in a lichen

1) creates organic substances from inorganic

2) absorbs water and mineral salts

3) breaks down organic matter into minerals

4) communicates the lichen with the environment

A7. What is the complexity of ferns compared to mosses?

1) in the process of photosynthesis form organic substances from inorganic

2) do not need water during fertilization

3) belong to higher spore plants

4) have roots and well-developed conductive tissues

A8. The organs of protection in crayfish are:

2) abdominal legs

4) long antennae

A9. The secondary cavity has:

1) all chordates

2) only non-cranial

3) only cranial

4) chordates with less intensive metabolism

A10. Why is it important for a person to keep their kidneys healthy?

1) undigested food is removed through them

2) liquid metabolic products are removed through them

3) they produce digestive enzymes

4) they regulate the level of hormones in the blood

A11. Why should food contain vitamins?

1) they are part of enzymes

2) they are part of the hormones

4) they are custodians hereditary information

A12. A person in a state of intoxication weakly coordinates his actions, as his activity is disturbed

1) autonomic nervous system

2) cerebellum

3) spinal cord

4) medulla oblongata

A13. Why is it dangerous to pet stray dogs?

1) you can get pinworms

2) you can get infected with echinococcus

3) you can get liver fluke

4) Finns of bovine tapeworm can get into the body

A14. What is the structural unit of a species?

2) colony

4) population

A15. What is the role hereditary variability in evolution?

1) in increasing the viability of the population

2) in increasing the genetic diversity of individuals in the population and increasing the efficiency of selection

3) in reducing the genetic diversity of individuals in the population and increasing the efficiency of selection

4) in increasing the heterogeneity of individuals in the population and reducing the efficiency of selection

A16. What are the consequences of motive selection?

1) preservation of old species

2) maintaining the rate of reaction

3) the emergence of new species

4) elimination of individuals with new mutations

A17. What is the name of a factor that deviates significantly from the optimal value for the species?

1) abiotic

2) biotic

3) anthropogenic

4) limiting

A18. Why is the agroecosystem not characterized by a balanced cycle of substances?

1) it does not include big variety species

2) it is characterized by a wide variety of species

3) it has long food chains

4) the number is not a large number species in it is high

A19. Which process facilitates the repeated use of the same plants over and over again? chemical elements absorbed from the soil?

1) root pressure

2) photosynthesis

3) self-regulation

4) circulation of substances

A20. Energy exchange cannot go on without plastic, since plastic exchange supplies energy for energy.

1) energy-rich ATP molecules

2) enzymes to speed up reactions

3) oxygen for splitting reactions

4) inorganic salts and acids

A21. The discovery of the centers of diversity and origin of cultivated plants served as the basis for the creation

1) Main Botanical Garden

3) breeding stations

4) Institute of Genetics

A22. To the highest nervous activity include:

1) mental, speech activity and memory

2) a group of orienting reflexes

3) instincts

4) reflexes that provide organic needs

A23. The material for evolutionary processes is:

1) the genetic diversity of the population

3) acquired traits

4) useless or harmful signs

A24. In the transformation of the biosphere leading role play

1) living organisms

2) chemical processes

3) physical processes

4) mechanical phenomena

Part 2(B)

IN 1. For prokaryotic organisms, in contrast to pre-nuclear life forms, the following features are characteristic:

1) circular DNA is concentrated in the central part of the cell, not separated by a nuclear membrane from the rest of the cell;

3) chromosomes, mitochondria and plastids are absent;

4) cells are not characterized by mitosis;

5) have a very limited number of enzymes, use the host's metabolism;

IN 2. The evolutionary ideas of Charles Darwin were manifested in the following views:

1) each species is capable of unlimited reproduction;

2) the driving forces of evolution are innate abilities for self-improvement and expedient response to environmental conditions;

3) the “ladder of beings” is a reflection of the process of development from lower to higher forms;

4) those organisms that are better adapted to environmental conditions survive in the struggle for existence;

5) the limited life resources impede the realization of the potential for reproduction of organisms;

6) the unit of evolution is a separate organism.

AT 3. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of vitamins and hormones.

AT 4. Establish a correspondence between the trait of animals and the class for which this trait is characteristic:

AT 5. Set the sequence of events occurring in the process of mitotic cell division:

A) chromosomes concentrate at the poles of the cell and despiralize

B) chromosomes are compacted, shortened

C) division of the centromeres of all chromosomes occurs

D) a shell of nuclei of daughter cells is formed around the chromosomes

D) chromosomes line up in the plane of the equator

AT 6. Establish a sequence of processes that cause a change in ecosystems.

A) settlement of the territory with mosses and bushy lichens

B) the appearance of shrubs and semi-shrubs

C) the formation of a herbal community

D) the appearance of scale lichens on rocks

E) formation of the forest community

Part 3(C)

C1. Why is it necessary to find out the number of small pond snails living in the rivers adjacent to them before grazing livestock in water meadows?

C2. What is the role of bacteria in nature? Give at least 4 values.

C3. What factors hinder the intensive growth of the number of organisms on the planet?

C4. Hemophilia in dogs (as in humans) is caused by the linkage of the blood incoagulability gene to the X chromosome (Xh). When crossing a blood-normal short-legged female and a male with long legs and normal blood clotting (long-leggedness is a recessive autosomal trait), one of the puppies turned out to be a hemophilic with long legs. Make a scheme for solving the problem. Determine the genotypes of parents and offspring with normal blood clotting and short legs, sex and genotype of a hemophilic puppy with long legs.

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Response elements: 1) small pond snail - intermediate host of the liver fluke; 2) with its high abundance during the flood of rivers, fluke cysts appear on meadow plants, which will lead to infection of livestock.
Response includes 1 of the above response elements, OR response includes 2 of the above elements, but contains non-gross biological errors
Wrong answer
Maximum score

(Other wording is allowed that does not distort its meaning)
Response elements: 1) bacteria - destroyers organic matter, form humus, mineralize organic substances and complete the cycle of substances in nature; 2) bacteria are involved in the formation of minerals: oil, coal, peat, natural gas, sulfur, phosphorus; 3) chemosynthetic and photosynthetic bacteria participate in the formation of organic matter; The answer includes 4-5 of the above elements, does not contain biological errors
The answer includes 3 of the above elements and does not contain biological errors, OR the answer includes 4-5 of the above elements, but contains non-gross biological errors.
The answer includes at least 2 of the above elements and does not contain biological errors, OR the answer includes 3 of the above elements, but contains non-gross biological errors
Wrong answer
Maximum score

(Other wording is allowed that does not distort its meaning)
Response elements: 1) limited food resources; 2) limited habitats; 3) the influence of adverse factors (climatic, anthropogenic, biotic, etc.)
The answer includes all the above elements, does not contain biological errors
Wrong answer
Maximum score

(Other wording is allowed that does not distort its meaning)
Response elements: 1) genotypes of parents: ♂ aaXHY (gametes aXH, aY); ♀ AaXHXh (gametes: AXH, aXH, AXh, aXh); 2) genotypes of puppies with normal blood clotting and short legs: АаХНХH, АаХНХh, АаХHY; 3) genotype of a hemophilic puppy with long legs: aaXhY (male). Other genetic symbolism is allowed.
The answer includes all the above elements, does not contain biological errors
The answer includes 2 of the above elements and does not contain biological errors, OR the answer includes 3 of the above elements, but contains non-gross biological errors.
The answer includes 1 of the above elements and does not contain biological errors, OR the answer includes 2 of the above elements, but contains non-gross biological errors.
Wrong answer
Maximum score

BIOLOGY EXAM

Work structure.

3 hours (180 minutes) are given to complete the examination paper in biology. The work consists of 3 parts, including 55 tasks.

Part 1 includes 42 tasks (A1 - A42). Each question has 4 answers, one of which is correct.

Part 2 contains 8 tasks (B1 - B8): 4 - with the choice of three correct answers out of six, 2 - for correspondence, 2 - for the sequence of biological processes, phenomena, objects.

Part 3 contains 5 tasks with free answer (С1 - С5). When performing tasks C1 - C3, it is necessary to give an answer from one to two sentences, and tasks C4, C5 - a complete detailed answer. Answers to tasks C1 - C5 must be written on a special form for recording answers in free form.

Read each question carefully and the suggested answers, if any. Answer only after you have understood the question and analyzed all possible answers.

Complete the tasks in the order in which they are given. If you have difficulty with any task, skip it and try to complete the ones for which you are sure of the answers. You can return to missed tasks if you have time.

One or more points are given for completing tasks of varying complexity. The points you get for completed tasks are summed up. Try to complete as many tasks as possible and score the most points.

PS: You can disconnect your Internet connection after this page has fully loaded and resume it when you are ready to submit your result to the server for processing.

Your Name: Your Class: Your Email:

When completing the tasks of this part for each task, choose the answer that. in your opinion is correct.

° cytology

Answer: ° genetics

° selection

° taxonomy

° Plant cells differ from animal cells in the presence of chloroplasts

Answer: ° A cell is a unit of structure, life and development of organisms.

° Prokaryotic cells do not have a well-formed nucleus.

° Viruses do not have a cellular structure.

° Golgi complex

Answer: plasma membrane

° endoplasmic reticulum

° cytoplasmic microtubules

° monosaccharides

Answer: ° polysaccharides

° Nucleic acids

A5. What ensures the exact sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule during its biosynthesis?

° matrix nature of reactions in the cell

° high speed chemical reactions in a cage

Answer: ° oxidative nature of reactions in the cell

° restore the nature of the reactions in the cell

° connective and epithelial tissues, sex male and female

Answer: ° sexual and somatic

° muscular and nervous tissues

° sexual male and female

° polio

Answer: flu

A8. Determine the organism in which, in the process of ontogenesis,

cell differentiation occurs?

° common amoeba

Answer: ° infusoria slipper

° multicellular algae

° freshwater hydra

° allelic

° dominant

Answer: ° recessive

° coupled

A10. When crossing dominant and recessive individuals, the first hybrid generation is uniform. What explains this?

° all individuals have the same genotype

Answer: ° all individuals have the same phenotype

° all individuals have a resemblance to one of the parents

° all individuals live in the same conditions

A11. What are the features of modification variability?

° manifests itself in each individual individually, as it changes

° is adaptive in nature, while the genotype is not

changes

Answer: ° does not have an adaptive character, it is caused by a change in the genotype

° obeys the laws of heredity, while the genotype does not

changes

A12. What methods did breeders use when breeding black-and-white cattle?

° mutagenesis

° polyploidy

Answer: ° hybridization and selection

° heterosis and artificial insemination

° formation of nutritional bonds between them

Answer: ° their participation in the cycle of substances

° their coexistence in an ecosystem

° their classification, grouping

° legume seeds contain a lot of protein.

Answer: ° the field is freed from weeds.

° the soil is enriched with nitrogen salts.

° the soil becomes looser.

° solanaceous

° legumes

Answer: ° cruciferous

° ranunculus

° endocrine system

° circulatory system

Answer: the digestive system

° musculoskeletal system

° have a developed cerebral cortex, a constant temperature

bodies, feed their young with milk

° have a streamlined body shape, feed their young

Answer: milk

° move with the help of the caudal fin and front

limbs turned into flippers

° breed in water, give birth to large cubs

° undigested food is removed through them.

Answer: ° liquid metabolic products are removed through them.

° they form digestive enzymes.

° they regulate the content of hormones in the blood.

° they are part of enzymes

° they are part of hormones

Answer: ° they contain energy-rich bonds

° they are the keepers of hereditary information

Answer: ° b ° g

° can be infected with children's acute

° can be infected with echinococcus

Answer: ° you can get liver fluke

° Finns of bovine tapeworm can get into the body

° colony

Answer: ° flock

° population

A23. What is the role of hereditary variability in evolution?

° In increasing the viability of the population

° In increasing the genetic diversity of individuals in a population and increasing the efficiency of selection

Answer: ° In a decrease in the genetic diversity of individuals in a population and

improving the efficiency of selection

° In increasing the heterogeneity of individuals in the population and reducing

selection efficiency

° conservation of old species

° maintenance of the reaction rate

° emergence of new species

° elimination of individuals with new mutations

° about their relationship, origin from a common ancestor

° about their development along the path of idioadaptation

Answer: ° about the possibility of the transformation of modern great apes into humans

° on the possibility of the emergence of speech in great apes

A26. Action anthropogenic factor is not of a regular nature, therefore, in individuals of a population

° adaptations are formed to it

Answer: ° adaptations cannot be formed to it

° beneficial mutations occur

° there are modifications useful for the individual

° food chain

Answer: ° ecological pyramid

° population fluctuations

° process of self-regulation

° root pressure

° photosynthesis

Answer: ° self-regulation

° cycling

° living organisms

Answer: ° chemical processes

° physical processes

° mechanical phenomena

° thinning of the ozone layer

° reduction of nitrogen content in the atmosphere

Answer: ° increase in the content of sulfur oxides in the atmosphere

° increase in carbon dioxide and smoke

atmosphere

° glucose

Answer: ° mRNA

° energy-rich ATP molecules

Answer: ° enzymes to speed up reactions

° oxygen for splitting reactions

° inorganic salts and acids

° consist of two polynucleotide chains

Answer: ° have the shape of a spiral

° these are biopolymers consisting of nucleotide monomers

° fertilization

° blastula

Answer: ° gastrula

° organogenesis

Answer: ° AA x AA

° they are low in nutrients.

Answer: ° they grow very slowly and tasteless.

° they accumulate a lot of harmful, toxic substances.

° they accumulate a lot of nitrates.

° in the process of photosynthesis form organic substances from

inorganic.

Answer: ° do not need water during fertilization

° belong to higher spore plants

° have roots and well-developed conductive tissues

° nutrients

° enzymes

Answer: hormones

° antibodies

° enzymes are produced

Answer: blood clot, clot is formed

° antibodies are formed

° the constancy of the internal environment is disturbed

° autonomic nervous system

° cerebellum

Answer: ° spinal cord

° medulla oblongata

° conservation of old species

Answer: ° preservation of the reaction rate

° emergence of new species

° preservation of individuals with unchanged traits

° it includes a small variety of species

Answer: ° it is characterized by a wide variety of species

° it has long food chains

° the abundance of a small number of species in it is high

When completing the tasks in this part, write down in ascending order, without punctuation marks and separated by spaces, the numbers of the three elements related to the correct answer.

IN 1. What features of the circulatory and respiratory organs are characteristic of amphibians?

C) one circle of blood circulation

4) two circles of blood circulation

IN 2. What organs are regulated by the human autonomic nervous system?

H) organs of the alimentary canal

4) facial muscles

5) kidney and bladder

6) diaphragm and intercostal muscles

AT 3. What is the function of the nucleus in the cell?

5) in it organic substances are oxidized to inorganic

6) participates in the formation of chromatids

AT 4. The appearance of what changes in plants in the process of evolution did not contribute to the general rise in their organization?

When performing tasks B5 - B6, establish a correspondence between objects or processes and a description of their properties and characteristics.

AT 5. Establish a correspondence between the individual functions of neurons and the types of neurons that these functions perform: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

FUNCTIONS OF NEURONS TYPES OF NEURONS

carried out in the brain

1) transmission of nerve impulses from A) sensitive

one neuron to another

transmit nerve impulses from

2) sense organs and internal B) intercalary

organs to the brain

transmit nerve impulses

transmit nerve impulses from B) motor

4) internal organs to the brain

5) transmit nerve impulses to

AT 6. Establish a correspondence between the structure and functions of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANOS

ORGANOIDS

bubbles at the ends

2) consists of a system of connected

between the tubules

4) participates in the formation of lysosomes B) Golgi complex

5) participates in education

cell wall

6) carries out transport

organic matter in different

cell parts

When performing tasks B7 - B8, determine the sequence of biological processes and phenomena.

AT 7. Set in what order sound vibrations should be transmitted to the receptors of the organ of hearing.

A) outer ear

B) membrane of the oval window

B) auditory ossicles

D) tympanic membrane

D) fluid in the cochlea

E) auditory receptors

AT 8. Set the sequence of steps energy metabolism.

D) synthesis of two ATP molecules

E) synthesis of 36 ATP molecules

For tasks C1 - C2, give a short answer of one or two sentences, and for tasks C3, C4, C5 - a full detailed answer.

C1. What is the purpose of whitewashing trunks and large branches of fruit trees?

C2. What is the role of DNA in protein synthesis?

C3. What are the characteristics of the plant kingdom?

C4. Why were the achievements of molecular biology of great importance for the development of genetic engineering?

C5. Why is the resistance of insect pests to pesticides increasing?

Option 1

Instruction for the student

The exam paper in biology consists of 57 tasks, which are divided into two parts. Part 1 contains 30 simple multiple choice tasks (A1 - AZ0). Part 2 consists of 27 more complex tasks of three types: 20 tasks - with a choice of answers (AZ1 - A50), 5 tasks (С1 - С5) - with a short answer (of 1-2 words or sentences) and two tasks (С6 - С7 ) with a detailed answer. Answers to tasks C1 - C7 must be written on a special form for recording answers in free form.

3 hours (180 minutes) are allotted to complete the work. We recommend completing the tasks in the order in which they are given. If you have difficulty with any task, skip it and try to complete the ones you are confident in. You can return to missed tasks if you have time.

We wish you success!

© 2001 Ministry of Education Russian Federation

Copying, distribution and use without the written permission of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

not allowed

This part consists of 30 simple tasks. Each question has 4 possible answers, of which only one is correct. In the answer sheet, under the task number, put a cross (x) in the box, the number of which is equal to the number of the correct answer you have chosen.

A1. Determine which cell organelle is depicted

on the image.

1) cell center

2) Golgi complex

3) chloroplast

4) mitochondrion

A2. Name the molecule that makes up the cell shown in

3) Amino acid

4) Fiber

AZ. The figure shows a ribosome, this is evidenced by its constituent

1) numerous cristae

2) gran systems

3) tanks and cavities

4) large and small particles

A4. 38 ATP molecules are synthesized in the cell during

1) oxidation of the glucose molecule

2) fermentation

3) photosynthesis

4) chemosynthesis

A5. Chromosome conjugation is the joining of two homologous chromosomes in the process

3) fertilization

4) pollination

A6. In agricultural practice, vegetative propagation of plants is often used to

1) get a high yield

2) increase their resistance to pests

3) increase their resistance to disease

4) get mature plants faster

A7. Look at the picture and identify dominant

signs of color and shape of pea seeds according to the results of dihybrid crossing (yellow seeds are light in the figure).

1) yellow and smooth 2) green and smooth

3) yellow and wrinkled 4) green and wrinkled

1) bacteria

2) viruses

3) algae

4) protozoa

A9. The appearance of all offspring with the same phenotype and the same

genotype indicates the manifestation of the law

1) splitting

2) dominance

3) independent inheritance

4) linked inheritance

A10. Exposure to X-rays can cause in a cell

1) relative variability

2) combinative variability

3) gene mutations

4) adaptability to the environment

A11. What is the name of a factor that significantly deviates from the optimal

for the type of quantity?

1) abiotic

2) biotic

3) anthropogenic

4) limiting

A12. What connections in the ecosystem were formed in the process of evolution in the functional groups of organisms depicted in the figure?

1) genetic

2) abiotic

3) food

4) anthropogenic

A13. The loss of energy in the food chain from plants to herbivores, and from them to subsequent links is called

1) the rule of the ecological pyramid

2) the circulation of substances

3) population fluctuations

4) self-regulation of the number of populations

A14. The great variety of Galapagos finches is the result of

1) aromorphosis

2) degeneration

3) idioadaptation

4) biological regression

A15. The driving force of evolution, which increases the heterogeneity of individuals in a population, is

1) mutational variability

2) modification variability

3) struggle for existence

4) artificial selection

A16. The difference between dicots and monocots is that they have

1) one cotyledon per seed, fibrous root system leaves with parallel venation

2) two cotyledons in a seed, tap root system, reticulate leaf venation

3) root, shoot, flower and fruit

4) inflorescence panicle, complex structure of leaves

1) a root appeared

2) a flower has formed

3) seeds were formed

4) fruits appeared

A18. The diversity of plant species on Earth and their adaptability to the environment

habitation - the result

1) the evolution of the plant world

2) weather changes

3) human activities

4) animal life

A19. The signal for the onset of leaf fall in plants is

1) increase in the humidity of the environment

2) reduction in the length of daylight hours

3) decrease in the humidity of the environment

4) increase in the temperature of the environment

A20. What are the links between life processes in

plant organism?

1) about the cellular structure of a plant organism

2) about the relationship of the plant with the environment

3) about the relationship of all plants

4) about the integrity of the plant organism

A21. The creation of conditions unfavorable for the life of bacteria underlies

1) making jam from berries and fruits

2) sauerkraut

3) silo filling

4) making kefir and cheese

A22. Species diversity of plants in natural communities can be

1) growing crops

2) creating a collection of seeds

3) Plant habitat protection

4) fertilizing with fertilizers

A23. In reptiles, unlike amphibians, fertilization

1) internal, reproduction on land

2) internal, reproduction in water

3) outdoor, reproduction on land

4) outdoor, reproduction in water

A24. Have a two-chambered heart

1) non-cranial

2) cartilaginous and bony fish

3) amphibians

4) birds and mammals

1) complication of the structure and life

2) simplification of the structure and life of l

3) complication of the structure, but simplification of life

4) simplification of the structure, but the complication of life

2) reptiles and birds

4) birds and mammals

A27. The gray matter in the brain and spinal cord is made up of

1) bodies of neurons and their short processes

2) long processes of neurons

3) sensitive neurons

4) motor neurons

A28. In what order are the components reflex arc are included in the implementation of the reflex?

1) executive organ, motor neuron, intercalary neuron, sensory neuron, receptor

2) intercalary neuron, sensory neuron, motor neuron, receptor, executive organ

3) receptor, sensory neuron, intercalary neuron, motor neuron, executive organ

4) sensory neuron, intercalary neuron, receptor, executive organ, motor neuron

A29. An excess of carbohydrates in the body leads to

1) poisoning the body

2) their transformation into inlays

3) their transformation into fats

4) splitting into more simple substances

A30. In the body of infected people, the CIIID virus can be detected

1) in the brain

2) in pulmonary vesicles

3) in the stomach and intestines

4) in blood cells

This part includes more complex tasks of three types: with the choice of the correct answer (A31 - A50), with a short answer (C1 - C5), with a detailed answer (C6 - C7).

For tasks AZ1 - A50, 4 answers are given, of which only one is correct. In the answer sheet, under the task number, put a cross (X) in the box, the number of which is equal to the number of the correct answer you have chosen.

A31. Oxidation of amino acids and fatty acids in energy metabolism occurs in

1) mitochondria

2) chromosomes

3) chloroplasts

4) ribosomes

A32. Complete identity of the chemical composition of DNA in individuals of the same species

indicates that DNA molecules

1) are part of heterotrophic cells

2) have the shape of a spiral

3) consist of two interconnected circuits

4) are characterized by species specificity

A33. Cell structure organisms of all kingdoms of living nature, the similarity of the structure of cells and their chemical composition serve as evidence

A34. The unit of reproduction of organisms is

2) cytoplasm

1) Organic substances are formed in cells from inorganic

2) on the formation of organic substances is used solar energy

3) the formation of organic substances uses the energy released during oxidation inorganic substances

4) the same metabolic products are formed

1) the expenditure of energy contained in ATP molecules

A37. During mitosis, unlike meiosis,

1) female gametes

2) somatic cells

3) male gametes

A38. What process results in the number of chromosomes being halved in cells?

3) fertilization

4) ontogenesis

A39. The daughter organism has the greatest similarity with the parent during reproduction.

1) sexual

2) seed

3) asexual

4) with alternation of generations

A40. Animal cells are less stable than plant cells.

because they don't have

1) chloroplasts

2) vacuoles

3) cell wall

4) lysosomes

A41. Obtaining in the first generation of hybrid offspring with the same phenotype and genotype, but different from the phenotype of parental forms, indicates the manifestation of the law

1) splitting

2) incomplete dominance

3) independent inheritance

4) linked inheritance

1) incomplete dominance

2) complete dominance

H) independent inheritance

4) feature splitting

A43. Differences in phenotype in individuals with the same genotype indicate

about their variability

1) modification

2) mutational

3) combinative

4) correlative

A44. Reproduction of new individuals from one or more cells is engaged in

1) cell engineering

2) genetic engineering

3) microbiology

4) cytology

A45. Pine forest is considered a biogeocenosis, because

1) there are family ties between the species living in it

2) there are no family ties between the species living in it

3) it has a high number of species of animals, plants and microorganisms

4) all species living in it for a long time are connected with each other and with

factors of inanimate nature, carry out the cycle of substances

A46. An ecosystem that is home to many related species and

there is a balanced circulation of substances, consider

1) unstable

2) stable

3) young

4) dying

A47. The most actively involved in the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy in the biosphere

1) oxygen

2) living matter

4) the warmth of the earth's interior

A48. Great importance in the evolution of Ch. Darwin gave the isolation of species,

thanks to which

1) competition between species intensifies

2) competition between populations intensifies

3) they accumulate hereditary changes

4) terminated natural selection

A49. The increase in the number of gray crows in settlements- example

1) aromorphosis

2) degeneration

3) biological regression

4) biological progress

A50. The interaction of social and biological factors determines

evolution

1) plants

2) animals

4 people

For tasks C1 - C5, you must write a short answer (of one or two words or sentences) on a special form for recording the answer in free form.

C1. In what metabolic reactions is water the starting material for the synthesis of carbohydrates?

C2. Why can't heterotrophic organisms make their own organic matter?

C3. What is the harmful effect of drugs on human offspring?

C4. Why are food chains short in an agroecosystem?

C5. Why is vegetative reproduction used to preserve valuable heterozygous individuals?

For tasks C6 and C7, it is necessary to write down a detailed answer on a special form for recording a free-form answer.

C6. What is the basis for the assertion that prokaryotes are the most ancient primitive organisms?

C7. What is the integrity of the genotype?

When completing the tasks of this part, indicate in the answer sheet the number that indicates the answer you have chosen by putting a sign< Х >in the appropriate box of the form for each task (A1-A42)

A1. What science uses the twin research method?

1) cytology

2) genetics

H) selection

4) taxonomy

A2. Specify the formulation of one of the provisions of the cell theory.

1) Plant cells differ from animal cells in the presence of chloroplasts.

2) A cell is a unit of structure, life and development of organisms.

3) Prokaryotic cells do not have a well-formed nucleus.

4) Viruses do not have a cellular structure.

A3. The organoid shown in the figure, which ensures the rapid movement of substances in the cell, is

1) Golgi complex

2) plasma membrane

3) endoplasmic reticulum

4) microtubules of the cytoplasm

A4. Which molecules contain phosphorus, which is necessary for all living organisms?

2) monosaccharides

3) polysaccharides

4) nucleic acids

A5. What ensures the exact sequence of amino acids

in a protein molecule during its biosynthesis

1) the matrix nature of reactions in the cell

2) high speed of chemical reactions in the cell

3) the oxidative nature of reactions in the cell

4) the restorative nature of reactions in the cell

A6. What human cells differ most significantly in the number of chromosomes?

1) connective and epithelial tissues

2) sexual male and female

3) sexual and somatic

4) muscle and nervous tissues

A7. What virus disrupts the human immune system?

1) poliomyelitis

A8. Identify an organism in which cell differentiation occurs during ontogenesis?

1) common amoeba

2) infusoria shoe

3) multicellular algae

4) freshwater hydra

A9. What genes show their effect in the first hybrid generation?

1) allelic

2) dominant

3) recessive

4) linked

A10. When crossing dominant and recessive individuals, the first hybrid

generation is the same. What explains this?

1) all individuals have the same genotype

2) all individuals have the same phenotype

3) all individuals are similar to one of the parents

4) all individuals live in the same conditions

A11. What are the features of modification variability?

1) manifests itself in each individual individually, as the genotype changes

2) is adaptive in nature, while the genotype does not change

3) does not have an adaptive character, is caused by a change in the genotype

4) obeys the laws of heredity, while the genotype does not change

A12. What methods did breeders use when breeding black-and-white cattle?

1) mutagenesis

2) polyploidy

3) hybridization and selection

4) heterosis and artificial insemination

A13. The similarity and kinship of organisms, due to the commonality of their origin, underlies

1) the formation of food ties between them

2) their participation in the cycle of substances

3) their joint habitat in the ecosystem

4) their classification, grouping

A14. Why does planting corn after legumes that develop nodule bacteria on their roots lead to higher yields?

1) legume seeds contain a lot of protein.

2) the field is cleared of weeds.

3) the soil is enriched with nitrogen salts.

4) the soil becomes looser.

A15. To which family do potatoes and tomatoes belong, in which a five-membered flower with a fused perianth and a fruit is a berry?

1) nightshade

2) legumes

3) cruciferous

4) ranunculus

A16. What system of mammalian organs delivers oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and frees them from metabolic products

1) endocrine system

2) circulatory system

3) digestive system

4) musculoskeletal system

A17. Why are whales classified as mammals?

1) have a developed cerebral cortex, a constant body temperature, feed their young with milk

2) have a streamlined body shape, feed their young with milk

3) move with the help of the caudal fin and forelimbs, which have turned into flippers

4) breed in water, give birth to large cubs

A18. Why is it important for a person to keep their kidneys healthy?

1) Undigested food is removed through them.

2) Liquid metabolic products are removed through them.

3) Digestive enzymes are formed in them.

4) They regulate the content of hormones in the blood.

A19. Why should food contain vitamins?

1) they are part of enzymes

2) they are part of the hormones

4) they are the keepers of hereditary information

A20. The respiratory center is located in the part of the brain, indicated in the figure by the letter

1) a 3) c 2)b 4)d

A21. Why is it dangerous to pet stray dogs?

1) you can become infected with children's acute

2) you can get infected with echinococcus

3) you can get liver fluke

4) Finns of bovine tapeworm can get into the body

A22. What is the structural unit of a species?

2) colony

4) population

A22. What is the role of hereditary variation in evolution?

1) In increasing the viability of the population

2) In increasing the genetic diversity of individuals in the population and increasing the efficiency of selection

3) In reducing the genetic diversity of a particular in a population and increasing the efficiency of selection

4) In increasing the heterogeneity of individuals in the population and reducing the efficiency of selection

A24. What are the consequences of motive selection?

1) preservation of old species

2) maintaining the rate of reaction

H) the emergence of new species

4) elimination of individuals with new mutations

A25. What is the evidence of the similarity of man with modern great apes?

1) about their relationship, origin from a common ancestor

2) about their development along the path of idioadaptation

3) about the possibility of the transformation of modern great apes into humans

4) about the possibility of the emergence of speech in great apes

A26. The action of the anthropogenic factor is not of a regular nature, therefore, in individuals of the population

1) adaptations are formed to it

2) adaptations cannot be formed to it

3) mutations that are beneficial for the individual occur

4) there are modifications useful for the individual

A27. What pattern does the picture show?

1) food chain

2) ecological pyramid

3) population fluctuations

4) the process of self-regulation

A28. What process facilitates the repeated use of the same chemical elements absorbed from the soil by plants?

1) root pressure

2) photosynthesis

3) self-regulation

4) circulation of substances

A29. In the transformation of the biosphere, the main role is played by

1) living organisms

2) chemical processes

3) physical processes

4) mechanical phenomena

A30. What is the reason for the global change in the biosphere - the emergence greenhouse effect?

1) a decrease in the thickness of the ozone layer

2) decrease in nitrogen content in the atmosphere

3) an increase in the content of sulfur oxides in the atmosphere

4) an increase in the content of carbon dioxide and smoke in the atmosphere

A31. In mitochondria, unlike chloroplasts, there is no synthesis of molecules

2) glucose

A32. Energy exchange cannot go on without plastic, since plastic exchange supplies energy for energy.

1) energy-rich ATP molecules

2) enzymes to speed up reactions

3) oxygen for splitting reactions

4) inorganic salts and acids

A33. What are the similarities between DNA and RNA molecules?

1) consist of two polynucleotide chains

2) have the shape of a spiral

3) these are biopolymers consisting of nucleotide monomers

A34. At what stage embryonic development the volume of a multicellular embryo does not exceed the volume of a zygote?

1) fertilization

2) blastula

3) gastrula

4) organogenesis

A35. When crossing tomatoes with red and yellow fruits, offspring were obtained in which half the fruits were red and half yellow. What are the genotypes of the parents?

A36. Why are mushrooms collected near a highway dangerous to eat?

1) They are low in nutrients.

2) They grow very slowly and tasteless.

3) They accumulate a lot of harmful, toxic substances.

4) They accumulate a lot of nitrates.

A37. What is the complexity of ferns compared to mosses?

1) In the process of photosynthesis, they form organic substances from inorganic ones.

2) Do not need water during fertilization.

3) They belong to higher spore plants.

4) They have roots and well-developed conductive tissues.

A38. Breastfeeding protects infants from infectious diseases, as mother's milk contains

1) nutrients

2) enzymes

3) hormones

4) antibodies

A39. What happens in the human body after vaccination?

1) enzymes are produced

2) blood coagulates, a clot forms

3) antibodies are formed

4) the constancy of the internal environment is violated

A40. A person in a state of intoxication weakly coordinates his actions, as his activity is disturbed

1) autonomic nervous system

2) cerebellum

3) spinal cord

4) medulla oblongata

A41. What are the consequences of stabilizing selection?

1) preservation of old species

2) preservation of the reaction rate

3) the emergence of new species

4) preservation of individuals with unchanged traits

A42. Why is the agroecosystem not characterized by a balanced cycle of substances?

1) it includes a small variety of species

2) it is characterized by a wide variety of species

3) it has long food chains

4) the number of a small number of species in it is high

When completing tasks B1 - B4 in the answer sheet, write down the numbers of the three elements related to the correct answer, starting from the first cell, without gaps and punctuation marks.

Q1 What features of the circulatory and respiratory organs are characteristic of amphibians?

1) three-chambered heart without a septum in the ventricle

2) three-chambered heart with an incomplete septum in the ventricle

3) one circle of blood circulation

4) two circles of blood circulation

5) at all stages of development they breathe with the help of lungs

6) at the stage of an adult animal, they breathe with the help of lungs and skin

Q2 The activity of what organs is regulated by the human autonomic nervous system?

1) muscles of the upper and lower extremities

2) hearts and blood vessels

3) organs of the alimentary canal

4) facial muscles

5) kidney and bladder

6) diaphragm and intercostal muscles

Q3 What functions does the nucleus perform in the cell?

1) ensures the entry of substances into the cell

2) serves as a place of localization of carriers of hereditary information - chromosomes

3) with the help of intermediary molecules, it participates in the synthesis of protein molecules

4) participates in the process of photosynthesis

5) in it, organic substances are oxidized to inorganic b) participates in the formation of chromatids

Q4 The appearance of what changes in plants in the process of evolution did not contribute to the general rise in their organization?

1) The appearance of roots in ancient ferns.

2) The appearance of chlorophyll in mosses.

3) The emergence of tissues in conifers.

5) The appearance of a flower and fruit in angiosperms.

6) The emergence of conductive tissues in flowering.

When performing tasks B5 - B6, establish a correspondence between objects or processes and a description of their properties and characteristics.

B5 Establish a correspondence between the individual functions of neurons and the types of neurons that these functions perform: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column. Enter the answer you received in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet (without spaces or other symbols).

FUNCTIONS OF NEURONS TYPES OF NEURON0B

1) carry out transmission in the brain A) sensitive

nerve impulses from one neuron to

2) transmit nerve impulses from organs B) intercalary

senses and internal organs to the brain

3) transmit nerve impulses to muscles B) motor

4) transmit nerve impulses from internal

organs to the brain

5) transmit nerve impulses to the glands

1	2	3	4	5

B6 Establish a correspondence between the structure and functions of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column. Enter the answer you received in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet (without spaces or other symbols).

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANOS

ORGANOIDS

1) consists of a group of cavities with A) endoplasmic reticulum

bubbles at the ends

2) consists of a system of connected B) Golgi complex

between the tubules

3) participates in protein biosynthesis

4) participates in the formation of lysosomes

5) participates in the formation of cellular

shells

6) carries out transport

organic matter to different parts of the cell

1	2	3	4	5	6

When performing tasks B7 - B8, determine the sequence of biological processes and phenomena.

B7 Set the order in which sound vibrations should be transmitted to the receptors of the organ of hearing.

A) outer ear

B) membrane of the oval window

B) auditory ossicles

D) tympanic membrane

D) fluid in the cochlea

E) auditory receptors

B8 Establish the sequence of stages of energy metabolism.

A) splitting of biopolymers to monomers

B) the entry of organic substances into the cell

C) oxidation of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and water

D) breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid

D) synthesis of two ATP molecules

E) synthesis of 36 ATP molecules

Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet (without spaces or other symbols).

For answers to the tasks of this part (C1 - C5), use a special form. First write down the number of the task (C1, etc.), then give a short answer of one or two sentences to tasks C1 - C2, and a full detailed answer to tasks C3, C4, C5.

C1 What is the purpose of whitewashing trunks and large branches of fruit trees?

C2 What is the role of DNA in protein synthesis?

C3 What are the characteristics of the plant kingdom?

C4 Why were advances in molecular biology important for the development of genetic engineering?

С5 Why is the resistance of insect pests to pesticides increasing?

Single State exam in BIOLOGY

Option 2

Instruction for the student

Please read this manual carefully before starting work. It will help you organize your time properly and get the job done successfully.

The exam paper in biology consists of 57 tasks, which are divided into two parts. Part 1 contains 30 simple multiple choice tasks (A1 - A30). Part 2 consists of 27 more complex tasks of three types: 20 tasks - with a choice of answers (A31 - A50), 5 tasks (C1 - C5) - with a short answer (of 1-2 words or sentences) and two tasks (C6 - C7 ) with a detailed answer. Answers to tasks C1 - C7 must be written on a special form for recording answers in free form.

For each task A1 - A50, 4 answers are given, of which one is correct. In the answer sheet, under the task number, put a cross (X) in the box, the number of which is equal to the number of the answer you have chosen.

Carefully read each task and the suggested answers to it, if any. Answer only after you have understood the question and analyzed all possible answers.

3 hours (180 minutes) are allotted to complete the work. We recommend completing the tasks in the order in which they are given. If a task is causing you difficulty. skip it and try to complete the ones you are sure of. You can return to missed tasks if you have time.

Check that you have filled in all the fields on the "answer form" that should have been completed BEFORE starting work.

Get to work

We wish you success!

A4. At what stage of energy metabolism are two ATP molecules synthesized?

1) glycolysis

2) preparatory stage

3) oxygen stage

4) the entry of substances into the cell

A5. Chromosome conjugation is characteristic of the process

1) fertilization

2) prophases of the second division of meiosis

4) prophases of the first division of meiosis

A6. In agricultural practice, the vegetative method of plant propagation is often used in order to

1) to achieve the greatest similarity of the offspring with the parent organism

2) to achieve the greatest difference between the offspring and the original forms

3) increase the resistance of plants to pests

4) increase the resistance of plants to diseases

A7. Consider the picture and determine the recessive traits in pea seeds based on the results of dihybrid crossing (in the figure, yellow seeds are light).

1) yellow and smooth

2) green and smooth

3) yellow and wrinkled

4) green and wrinkled

A8. Creatures that are characterized by a non-cellular structure, and their vital activity is manifested only in the cells of other organisms, are classified as

1) bacteria

2) viruses

3) algae

4) protozoa

1) general degeneration

2) aromorphosis

3) speciation

4) biological regression

A15. An evolutionary factor that contributes to the accumulation of various mutations in a population is

1) intraspecific struggle

2) interspecific struggle

3) geographic isolation

4) limiting factor

A16. The main features by which angiosperms are grouped into families is the structure

1) flower and fruit

2) root system

3) leaves and their venation

4) seed and stem

A17. An important step in the evolution of plants is the appearance of a seed, since, unlike a spore, it is a

1) one cell covered with a shell

2) vegetative bud

3) multicellular germ of a new plant

4) sex cell

A18. Coniferous plants serve as an adaptation to reduce water evaporation.

1) life expectancy of needles for several years

2) keeping the leaves-needles green in most conifers all year round

3) a limited number of stomata and a dense skin of needles

4) the rapid movement of water through the vessels of the conductive tissue

A19. Flooding of wheat fields in early spring with melt water sometimes leads to the death of seedlings, as this disrupts the process

1) photosynthesis due to lack of oxygen

2) respiration due to lack of oxygen

3) absorption of water from the soil

4) water evaporation

A20. Plants that develop nodule bacteria on their roots belong to the family

1) rosaceous

2) legumes

3) cabbage

4) lily

A21. To preserve the diversity of mushrooms during their collection, it is impossible to damage the mycelium, as it

1) improve soil fertility

2) serves as a site for the formation of spores

3) protect the soil from water erosion

4) absorbs water and minerals from the soil

A22. Unfavorable conditions for the life of bacteria are created when

1) laying silo

2) making kefir

3) sauerkraut

4) drying mushrooms

A23. A three-chambered heart with an incomplete septum in the ventricle was formed in the process of evolution in

1) amphibians

2) bony fish

3) reptiles

4) cartilaginous fish

A24. The skin plays the most essential role in respiration.

1) water reptiles

2) cartilaginous and bony fish

3) amphibians

4) mammals

A25. More complex brain structure and behavior are characteristic of

2) mammals

3) amphibians

4) reptiles

A26. Archeopteryx fossil finds testify to the relationship

1) amphibians and reptiles

2) reptiles and birds

3) reptiles and mammals

4) birds and mammals

A27. The hormone involved in the regulation of blood sugar is produced in the gland

1) thyroid

2) dairy

3) pancreas

4) salivary

A28. Middle ear pressure

1) does not depend on atmospheric

2) exceeds atmospheric

3) corresponds to atmospheric

4) less than atmospheric

A29. Nutrients digested in the stomach and intestines by the action of digestive juices

1) hormones

2) enzymes

3) vitamins

4) antibodies

A30. One of the main routes of transmission of AIDS is

1) communication with an AIDS patient

2) use of donated blood and sperm

3) visiting the clinic for examination by a general practitioner

4) using clothes worn by an AIDS patient

This part includes more complex tasks of three types: with the choice of the correct answer (A31 - A50), with a short answer (C1 - C5), with a detailed answer (C6 - C7).

For tasks A31 - A50, 4 answers are given, of which only one is correct. In the answer sheet, under the task number, put a cross (X) in the box, the number of which is equal to the number of the correct answer you have chosen.

A31. The unit of development of organisms is

2) chloroplasts

3) mitochondria

A32. Lipids are ether soluble but not water soluble

1) consist of monomers

2) hydrophobic

3) hydrophilic

4) are polymers

A33. The cellular structure of organisms of all kingdoms of living nature, the similarity of the structure of cells and their chemical composition serves as evidence

1) the unity of the organic world

2) the unity of animate and inanimate nature

3) evolution of the organic world

4) the origin of nuclear organisms from pre-nuclear

A34. Hydrogen bonds between CO and NH groups in a protein molecule give it a helical shape characteristic of the structure

1) primary

2) secondary

3) tertiary

4) Quaternary

A35. The similarity of chemosynthesis and photosynthesis is that in both processes

1) solar energy is used to form organic substances

2) the formation of organic substances uses the energy released during the oxidation of inorganic substances

3) used as a carbon source carbon dioxide

4) the final product, oxygen, is released into the atmosphere

A36. In the process of energy metabolism, in contrast to plastic,

1) the expenditure of energy contained in ATP molecules

2) energy storage in macroergic bonds of ATP molecules

3) providing cells with proteins and lipids

4) providing cells with carbohydrates and nucleic acids

A37. During meiosis, unlike mitosis,

2) somatic cells

3) chromosomes

4) sex cells

A38. In the formation of daughter cells with a diploid set of chromosomes, as in the mother cell, an important role is played by

3) fertilization

4) ontogeny

A39. The daughter organism differs to a greater extent from the parent organisms during reproduction.

1) vegetative

2) with the help of spores

3) sexual

4) budding

A40. Plant cells, unlike animal cells, interact with each other using

1) plasma bridges

2) glycocalyx

3) endoplasmic reticulum

4) Golgi complex

A41. When homozygous tomato plants with round yellow fruits are crossed with pear-shaped red fruits (red color A dominates over yellow a, round shape B over pear-shaped b), offspring with the genotype

A42. If the genes are located in different pairs of non-homologous chromosomes, then the law manifests itself

1) incomplete dominance

2) complete dominance

3) independent inheritance

4) feature splitting

A43. The significance of mutational variability for evolution, in contrast to modificational variability, is that it

1) occurs immediately in a large number of individuals

2) occurs only in individual individuals

3) is inherited

4) not inherited

A44. Mass selection as a selection method, in contrast to individual selection,

1) used to restore the number of bison

2) especially widely used in animal husbandry

3) is carried out by genotype

4) is carried out according to the phenotype

A45. A reservoir is considered a biogeocenosis, because

1) all species living in it have family ties

2) the species living in it are not related

3) it is inhabited by plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms

4) for a long time it is inhabited by species adapted to each other and to inanimate nature, carry out the cycle of substances

A46. An ecosystem is considered sustainable if it has

1) the circulation of substances is open

2) the circulation of substances is balanced

3) a small number of species live

4) the number of individual species is changing

A47. In preserving the diversity of plant and animal species in the biosphere, it is of great importance

1) creation of reserves

2) expansion of the area of ​​agrocenoses

3) increasing the productivity of agrocenoses

4) Pest control of agricultural plants

A48. Ch. Darwin attached great importance to hereditary variability in the evolution of the organic world, since it contributes to

1) increased competition between species

2) increased competition between populations

3) increase the efficiency of natural selection

4) population fluctuations

A49. Increasing numbers of crop pests, example

1) aromorphosis

2) degeneration

3) biological regression

4) biological progress

A50. It contributes to the expansion of the range of the species

1) the presence of a large number of populations in it

2) genetic relationship of individuals

3) lack of genetic relationship of individuals

4) the presence of a small number of populations in it

Scientists believe that intellectual abilities are 50–70% determined by genes, and the choice of profession is 40%. At 34%, we have a tendency to be polite and rude. Even the desire to sit in front of the TV for a long time is 45% a genetic predisposition. The rest, according to experts, is determined by upbringing, social environment and sudden blows of fate - for example, diseases.

A gene, just like an individual organism, is subject to natural selection. If, for example, it allows a person to survive in harsher climates or to endure physical activity longer, it will spread. If, on the contrary, it provides the appearance of some harmful trait, then the prevalence of such a gene in the population will fall.

During the fetal development of a child, this influence of natural selection on individual genes can manifest itself in a rather strange way. For example, genes inherited from the father are "interested" in the rapid growth of the fetus - since the paternal organism obviously does not lose from this, and the child grows faster. Maternal genes, on the other hand, promote slower development—which ends up taking longer, but leaving the mother with more energy.

Prader-Willi syndrome is an example of what happens when mom's genes "win". During pregnancy, the fetus is inactive; after birth, the child has a developmental delay, a tendency to obesity, short stature, drowsiness and impaired coordination of movements. It may seem strange that these apparently unfavorable traits are encoded by maternal genes - but it must be remembered that normally the same genes compete with paternal ones.

In turn, the “victory” of paternal genes leads to the development of another disease: Angelman syndrome. In this case, the child develops hyperactivity, often epilepsy and delayed speech development. Sometimes vocabulary the patient is limited to just a few words, and even in this case, the child understands most of what is said to him - it is the ability to express his thoughts that suffers.

Of course, it is impossible to predict the appearance of the child. But you can say with a certain degree of certainty what the main features will be. Dominant (strong) and recessive (weak) genes will help us with this.

For each of its external and internal features the child receives two genes. These genes may be the same (tall, full lips) or different (tall and short, plump and thin). If the genes match, there will be no conflict, and the child inherits full lips and tall stature. Otherwise, the strongest gene wins.

A strong gene is called dominant, and a weak gene is called recessive. Strong genes in humans include dark and curly hair; baldness in men; brown, or green eyes; normally pigmented skin. Recessive traits include blue eyes, straight, blond or red hair, and lack of skin pigment.

When a strong and a weak gene meet, the strong one usually wins. For example, mom is brown-eyed brunette, and dad is blond with blue eyes, with a high degree of probability we can say that the baby will be born with dark hair and brown eyes.

True, brown-eyed parents may have a newborn with blue eyes. Thus, the genes received from the grandmother or the grandfather could affect. The opposite situation is also possible. The explanation is that it turns out that not one gene from each parent, as was previously believed, is responsible for any trait, but a whole group of genes. And sometimes one gene is responsible for several functions at once. So a number of genes are responsible for the color of the eyes, which each time are combined in a different way.

Hereditary diseases transmitted by genes

A baby can inherit from his parents not only appearance and character traits, but also diseases (cardiovascular, oncological, diabetes, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's).

The disease may not manifest itself if elementary safety measures are taken. Tell the gynecologist in detail about serious health problems not only for you and your husband, but also for close relatives. This will help protect the baby in the future. Sometimes completely healthy parents give birth to a baby with a hereditary disease. It was laid down in the genes and manifested itself only in the child. This usually happens when both parents have the same disease in their genes. Therefore, if a child is planned, according to experts, it is better to undergo a genetic examination. This is especially true of a family in which children with hereditary diseases were already born.

A weak gene may not be detected in one or many generations until two recessive genes from each parent meet. And then, for example, such a rare sign as albinism may appear.

Chromosomes are also responsible for the sex of the child. For a woman, the chances of giving birth to a girl or a boy are equal. The sex of the child depends only on the father. If an egg meets a sperm with an X sex chromosome, it will be a girl. If U - a boy will be born.

What else can depend on genes:

Gender - 100%;

Height - 80% (for men) and 70% (for women);

Blood pressure - 45%;

Snoring - 42%;

Female infidelity - 41%;

Spirituality - 40%;

Religiosity - 10%.

There are also genes responsible for the development of certain conditions, such as depression or a tendency to uncontrolled eating.

The level of mutations in men is 2 times higher than in women. Thus, it turns out that humanity owes its progress to men.

All representatives of the human race are 99.9% identical in DNA, which completely sweeps aside any basis for racism.

Pleiotropy - multiple gene action (one gene controls the development of several traits).

Often there is a phenomenon when one pair of genes affects several traits at once. Even Mendel in his experiments established that pea plants with purple flowers, in addition, always have red spots in the axils of the leaves and form seeds covered with a gray or brown peel, and that all these signs depend on the action of one hereditary factor.

When studying the genetic characteristics of Persian wheat N.I.Vavilov established that the dominant black color gene always simultaneously causes strong pubescence of the scales.

In the fruit fly Drosophila, a gene that determines the absence of pigment in the eyes reduces fertility, affects the color of some internal organs, and reduces life expectancy.

In karakul sheep, one gene determines the color of the wool and the development of the scar.

The pleiotropic effect of a gene can be primary or secondary (Fig. 56).

At primary pleiotropy the gene exhibits its multiple effect. For example, in Hartnup's disease, a gene mutation leads to impaired absorption of the amino acid tryptophan in the intestine and its reabsorption in the renal tubules. In this case, the membranes of the epithelial cells of the intestine and renal tubules are simultaneously affected with disorders of the digestive and excretory systems.

In humans, a dominant gene is known that determines the trait "spider fingers" ( Marfan syndrome). At the same time, abnormal development of the fingers is accompanied by a violation of the structure of the lens and the development of heart disease (Fig. 57). Here, the multiple effect is also based on the action of one gene, which causes a violation of the development of connective tissue.

At secondary pleiotropy there is one primary phenotypic trait - the manifestation of a mutant gene, followed by a stepwise process of secondary changes leading to multiple effects. So, with sickle cell anemia, homozygotes have several pathological signs: anemia, an enlarged spleen, damage to the skin, heart, kidneys and brain. Therefore, homozygotes with the sickle cell anemia gene die, as a rule, in childhood. All these phenotypic manifestations of a gene constitute a hierarchy of secondary manifestations. The root cause, the immediate phenotypic manifestation of the defective gene, is abnormal hemoglobin and crescent-shaped red blood cells. As a result, other pathological processes occur sequentially: aggregation and destruction of red blood cells, anemia, defects in the kidneys, heart, brain - these pathological signs are secondary.

In pleiotropy, a gene, acting on one main trait, can also change, modify the manifestation of other genes, in connection with which the concept of modifier genes was introduced. The latter enhance or weaken the development of traits encoded by the "main" gene.

The modifying action of a gene - a gene enhances or weakens the effect of a non-allelic gene. There are "basic action" genes, ie. those that determine the development of a trait or property, such as pigment production, fruit shape, susceptibility or resistance to disease, etc. Along with such genes, apparently, there are genes that by themselves do not determine any qualitative reaction or trait, they only enhance or weaken the manifestation of the action of the "main" gene, i.e. modify it, such genes are called modifiers. Any interacting genes at the same time are the genes of the "main" action for one trait, and for another (or others) are modifier genes.

Indicators of the dependence of the functioning of hereditary inclinations on the characteristics of the genotype are penetrance and expressiveness.

Considering the action of genes, their alleles, it is necessary to take into account the modifying influence of the environment in which the organism develops. If primrose plants are crossed at a temperature of 15-20 ° C, then in F 1 according to the Mendelian scheme, all generations will have pink flowers. But when such a cross is carried out at a temperature of 35 ° C, then all hybrids will have white flowers. If crosses are carried out at a temperature of about 30 ° C, then a different ratio (from 3: 1 to 100%) of plants with white flowers arises.

Such a fluctuation of classes during splitting, depending on environmental conditions, is called penetrance - strength of phenotypic expression. So, penetrance - this is the frequency of manifestation of a gene, the phenomenon of the appearance or absence of a trait in organisms that are identical in genotype.

Penetrance varies considerably among both dominant and recessive genes. Along with genes, the phenotype of which appears only under a combination of certain conditions and rather rare external conditions (high penetrance), a person has genes, the phenotypic manifestation of which occurs under any combination of external conditions (low penetrance). Penetrance is measured by the percentage (%) of organisms with a phenotypic trait out of the total number of examined carriers of the corresponding alleles.

If the gene is complete, regardless of environment, determines the phenotypic manifestation, then it has a penetrance of 100% ( full penetrance). However, some dominant genes show up less regularly. So, polydactyly has a clear vertical inheritance, but there are gaps in generations. The dominant anomaly - premature puberty - is inherent only in men, but sometimes the disease can be transmitted from a person who did not suffer from this pathology. Penetrance indicates what percentage of the carriers of the gene is the corresponding phenotype. So, penetrance depends on the genes, on the environment, on both. Thus, this is not a constant property of a gene, but a function of genes under specific environmental conditions.

expressiveness (lat. “expressio” - expression) is a change in the quantitative manifestation of a trait in different individuals-carriers of the corresponding allele.

In dominant hereditary diseases, expressivity may fluctuate. In the same family, hereditary diseases can manifest from mild, barely noticeable to severe: various forms hypertension, schizophrenia, diabetes, etc. Recessive hereditary diseases within the family manifest themselves in the same way and have slight fluctuations in expressivity.

In this way, penetrance - is the probability of phenotypic manifestation of the gene, which is expressed as a percentage (the ratio of diseased individuals to the number of carriers of the corresponding gene).

expressiveness - the degree of clinical manifestation of the gene, which can be weak or strong. Penetrance and expressivity of genes depend on endogenous and exogenous factors. For example, if a violation in the genome is of decisive importance for the manifestation of hemophilia, then the occurrence of diabetes mellitus depends on the interaction of genetic factors and the external environment. In the latter case, they speak of a hereditary predisposition. The ability of the genotype to manifest itself differently in different environmental conditions is called the reaction norm. The reaction rate is inherited, but changes within the reaction rate are not inherited.

A number of signs similar in external manifestation, including hereditary diseases, can be caused by various non-allelic genes. Such a phenomenon is called genocopy . The biological nature of genocopies lies in the fact that the synthesis of the same substances in the cell in some cases is achieved in different ways.

One of the first to study this phenomenon N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky. At the suggestion of N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky, from the mid-1930s heterogeneous groups began to name groups of genes that give a very similar external manifestation, but are localized in different chromosomes or different loci, such as the group of minute genes that cause the reduction of setae in Drosophila. This phenomenon is widespread in wildlife, including humans. True, in the genetic literature, it is usually not the term N.V. that is used to designate it. Timofeev-Resovsky "heterogeneous groups", and later (mid-40s of the XX century), proposed by a German geneticist X.Nachtsheim- "genocopies", in addition to which the term "phenocopies" was later introduced.

Phenocopies - modification changes - also play an important role in human hereditary pathology. They are due to the fact that in the process of development, under the influence of external factors, a trait that depends on a particular genotype may change; at the same time, traits characteristic of another genotype are copied. In this way, phenocopy - a non-hereditary change in the phenotype of an organism, caused by the action of certain environmental conditions and copying the manifestation of any known hereditary change - mutation - in this organism.

Various environmental factors, such as climatic, physical, chemical, biological, and social, can play a role in the development of phenocopies. Congenital infections (rubella, toxoplasmosis, syphilis) can also cause phenocopies of a number of hereditary diseases and malformations. The existence of geno- and phenocopies often makes it difficult to make a diagnosis, so the doctor should always keep their existence in mind.

31.Multiple allelism. Human blood groups according to the ABO system (genotypes, phenotypes, inheritance, transfusion rules)

. Multiple allelism - the presence in the gene pool of a population at the same time 3 or more different alleles of one gene. An example is the diversity of human eye color, the diversity of blood groups. Gene I can be represented by three different alleles: I A , I B , i , which are combined in zygotes only in pairs.

Another example is the inheritance of coat color in rabbits (Fig. 40). There are four alleles in the rabbit population.

Gene A is responsible for the inheritance of dark coat color and dominates all other alleles. Gene ach causes chinchilla coloration and in relation to genes a h and a behaves like a dominator. Gene a h responsible for the Himalayan coat color and dominates the gene a (white color). In this way, A >ach >a h >a (Table 5).

The cause of multiple allelism is random changes in the structure of the gene (mutations) that are preserved in the process of natural selection in the gene pool of the population.

The diversity of alleles that recombine during sexual reproduction determines the degree of genotypic diversity among representatives of a given species, which is of great evolutionary importance, increasing the viability of populations under changing conditions of their existence. In addition to evolutionary and ecological significance, the allelic state of genes has a great influence on the functioning of the genetic material. In diploid somatic cells of eukaryotic organisms, most genes are represented by two alleles that together influence the formation of traits.

Blood groups- these are genetically inherited traits that do not change during life under natural conditions. The blood group is a certain combination of surface antigens of erythrocytes (agglutinogens) of the ABO system.

The definition of group affiliation is widely used in clinical practice in the transfusion of blood and its components, in gynecology and obstetrics in the planning and management of pregnancy.

The AB0 blood group system is the main system that determines the compatibility and incompatibility of transfused blood, since its constituent antigens are the most immunogenic. A feature of the AB0 system is that in the plasma of non-immune people there are natural antibodies to the antigen that is absent on erythrocytes. The AB0 blood group system consists of two group erythrocyte agglutinogens (A and B) and two corresponding antibodies - plasma agglutinins alpha (anti-A) and beta (anti-B).

Various combinations of antigens and antibodies form 4 blood types:

1. Group 0 (I)- there are no group agglutinogens on erythrocytes, agglutinins alpha and beta are present in plasma;

2. Group A (II)- erythrocytes contain only agglutinogen A, agglutinin beta is present in plasma;

3. Group B (III)- erythrocytes contain only agglutinogen B, plasma contains agglutinin alpha;

4. Group AB (IV)- antigens A and B are present on erythrocytes, the plasma does not contain agglutinins.

Determination of blood groups is carried out by identifying specific antigens and antibodies (double method or cross-reaction).

Question 1.
The dominant features in peas are:
1) the shape of the seeds is smooth;
2) seed color - yellow;
3) the position of flowers - axillary flowers;
4) color of flowers - red;
5) stem length - long stems;
6) the shape of the pod - simple beans;
7) the color of the pod is green.

Question 2.
The manifestation of qualitative traits is determined by the interaction of both allelic and non-allelic genes. We know the phenomenon of dominance, in which one allelic gene completely suppresses the manifestation of another. So, in peas in a heterozygous organism (Aa), yellow seeds. When a black guinea pig (AA) is crossed with a white animal, all their descendants - heterozygotes (Aa) will show a dominant trait that is absent in the white parent.
The development of a trait, as a rule, is controlled by several genes, between which a certain interaction occurs. An example of the interaction of allelic genes is incomplete dominance, in which the dominant gene does not completely suppress the action of the recessive gene; as a result, an intermediate sign develops. With incomplete dominance (remember the night beauty plant), organisms with AA genotypes have a red, Aa - pink, and aa plants - a white corolla color.
When codominance, the action of both genes is manifested with their simultaneous presence. Each of the allelic genes codes for a specific protein. In a heterozygous organism, both proteins are synthesized, and as a result, a new trait appears. For example, human blood groups are determined by multiple alleles I A , I B , I 0 - Genes I A and I B are dominant, and gene I 0 is recessive. When the genes I A and I B interact, a new trait appears that causes the appearance of the IV blood group I A I B in humans.
With overdominance, the dominant allele in the heterozygous state has a stronger manifestation of the trait than in the homozygous state. The Drosophila fly has a recessive lethal mutation. Heterozygous organisms are more viable than dominant homozygous wild-type flies.
But non-allelic genes also interact, as a result of which new traits appear when crossing. There are the following main types of gene interaction: complementarity, epistasis, polymerization.

Question 3.
Polymeria plays a role in the development of quantitative traits - a phenomenon in which several pairs of non-allelic genes are involved in the development of one trait.
In this case, quantitative traits are determined by non-allelic genes acting on the same trait or property. The more dominant genes in the genotype that determine any trait, the more pronounced it is. It has been proven that the manifestation of such traits is associated with the interaction of many dominant genes that affect the same trait. Genes of this type are called polymeric.

Question 4.
1. Complementarity- the phenomenon of complementarity of genes from different allelic pairs. Complementary (that is, “additional”) genes, when combined, determine the development of a new trait that neither parent had. So, for example, when crossing two sweet pea plants with white flowers, having the genotypes AAbb and aaBB, plants with purple flowers were obtained in F 1, the genotype of which was AaBb. The appearance of a new trait in a hybrid of the first generation is explained by the fact that its genotype contains dominant alleles of both genes (A and B).
2. Epistasis- a phenomenon that consists in the fact that one gene prevents the manifestation of genes from another allelic pair. A gene that suppresses the action of another is called an epistatic gene or a suppressor. The repressed gene is called hypostatic. Epistasis can be dominant or recessive. Most often, in this case, a dominant gene from another allelic pair has an epistatic (suppressive) effect.
An example of dominant epistasis is the formation of color in chickens:
allele A causes color formation, and allele B suppresses color formation.
aaBB, aaBb, aabb - white color (no allele A in the genotype),
AAbb, Aabb - colored plumage (the A allele is present in the genotype and the B allele is absent),
AABB, AABb, AaBB, AaBb - white color (in the genotype there is an allele B, which suppresses the manifestation of the allele A).
The epistatic action of the recessive gene can explain the Bombay phenomenon - the unusual inheritance of antigens of the ABO blood group system. Four blood types are known.
In the family of a woman with blood group I (I 0 and I 0), a child with blood group IV (I A and I B) was born from a man with blood group II (I A and I A), which is impossible and required explanation. During the study, it turned out that the woman inherited the IB gene from her mother, and the I 0 gene from her father. Only the I 0 gene showed its effect, and therefore it was believed that the woman has the I blood group. Gene I B was suppressed by the recessive gene x, which is in the homozygous state - xx.

The suppressed IB gene showed its effect, and the child had an IV blood group (I A and I B).
3. Polymeria- a phenomenon, the essence of which lies in the fact that several pairs of non-allelic genes are involved in the development of one trait. With the accumulation of dominant polymeric genes, their action is summed up. For example, the color of wheat grains may vary from pale red to dark red, or may be absent (white grains). The genotype of plants with uncolored grains was a 1 a 1 a 2 a 2 a 3 a 3; plant genotype with dark red grains A 1 A 1 A 2 A 2 A 3 A 3 . Plant genotypes with intermediate color types occupied intermediate positions (for example, A 1 a 1 A 2 a 2 A 3 a 3 .
The study of the interaction and multiple action of genes confirms the fact that the genotype is a holistic, historically established system of interacting genes.

Question 5.
This interaction of non-allelic genes is called complementarity. Complementarity is the phenomenon of complementarity of genes from different allelic pairs. For example, in chickens, the pea-shaped comb is determined by one dominant gene, the pink-shaped one is determined by another non-allelic to him, but also a dominant gene. When these genes are in the same genotype, a nut-shaped crest develops. In the event that an organism is homozygous for both recessive genes, a simple leaf-shaped ridge develops. When crossing dihybrids (all with a walnut crest) in the second generation, a splitting of phenotypes occurs in a ratio of 9.3:3:1. But here it is impossible to find an independent splitting of each allele in a ratio of 3: 1, since in all cases of coincidence in the genotype of both dominant genes, their direct effect is not detected. In other cases of complementarity, splitting of the second generation in relation to 9:7 and 9:6:1 is possible.
For example, they crossed two varieties of sweet peas with white flowers. F 1 hybrids obtained as a result of crossing had red flowers. The color of the flowers depended on two interacting genes.
Proteins (enzymes) synthesized on the basis of genes A and B catalyzed biochemical reactions that led to the emergence of a new trait.
Gene A determined the synthesis of a colorless precursor (propigment). Gene B determined the synthesis of the enzyme, under the action of which the pigment responsible for the color of the petals was formed from the propigment, a - the allele that does not provide the synthesis of the pigment, b - the allele that does not provide the synthesis of the enzyme. Sweet pea petals with genotypes aaBB, aaBb, Aavb, aavb had White color. In all other genotypes, both dominant non-allelic genes were present, which determined the formation of the propigment and the enzyme involved in the formation of the red pigment.

Question 6.
epistasis- suppression of the action of the genes of one allele by the genes of another. There are dominant and recessive epistasis. In the first case, the suppressor genome is a dominant gene, in the second, a recessive one. Analysis during epistatic interaction of genes is carried out according to the scheme of dihybrid crossing. However, it is important to remember that the question of the dominance of allelomorphic genes is first decided, and then the interaction of non-allelic genes. In the case of crossing dihybrids with dominant epistasis, splitting in the second generation turns out to be 13:3 or 12:3:1, i.e. That is, in all cases where a dominant suppressor gene is present, the suppressed gene will not appear. In the case of crossing dihybrids with recessive epistasis, splitting in the second generation is observed in a ratio of 9:3:4. Epistasis will occur only in those four out of 16 cases where two suppressor genes match in the genotype.
Most often, in this case, a dominant gene from another allelic pair has an epistatic (suppressive) effect. For example, chickens have a gene whose dominant allele (C) determines the color of the feather, and the recessive allele (c) determines the absence of color. Another gene in the dominant state (J) suppresses the action of the C gene, and in the recessive state (j) it does not interfere with the manifestation of the action of the C gene. As a result, in chickens with the CCJJ genotype, feather color does not appear, but with the CCjj or Ccjj genotypes it does.