Neologisms in modern English and some ways of translating them. Neologisms and methods of their translation Affixal method of formation

Zainullina Diana Indirovna

Parfenova Maria Sergeevna- Student, Ulyanovsk State University, Ulyanovsk, Russia

Savitskaya Alisa Ilyinichna- Student, Ulyanovsk State University, Ulyanovsk, Russia

The profession of a translator presupposes not only knowledge of speech clichés and set expressions that are entrenched in the language, but also awareness of one’s field in all its manifestations. An experienced translator must be aware that the language is changing, keeping up with the times, which means that more and more new expressions, phrases and words are entering everyday life. Due to the transformation of social processes, the tendency to change the language comes to the fore, which involves its continuous development and the emergence of ever new forms of words, expressions, abbreviations, etc. Consequently, if a translator wants to be a professional in his field, he must be aware of every new trends in the language, so that its translation complies with all the norms of the language, is understandable to the reader and is equally interesting to him.

What are neologisms? Neologisms are words, expressions or new meanings already existing words, the emergence of which is associated with new trends in science, technology, and social life; they also serve as tools for stylizing text or creating an artistic image. In other words, neologisms are new words and expressions that appear in the language, and therefore in speech, along with changes occurring in the world. For example, words such as "deadline", "trend", often instead of the word "telephone", which is more familiar to a Russian-speaking person, we can hear "iPhone". From this we can conclude that neologisms really appear over time and invariably enter our everyday speech, and then into literary language. However, it is worth remembering that neologisms still belong to passive vocabulary, since they may not be understandable to every one of us. However, they exist and we cannot neglect them, especially when translating modern texts, which are often “filled” with them.

It should be noted that neologisms are divided into several types.

Lexical neologisms. Their appearance is associated with changes in all areas of life, be it politics or the legal field. That is, they arise with new trends in life. For example, the word bromance, which arose from the words bro And romance, which is often used in the speech of comedic characters in famous American TV series and films. It is most often translated as “strong male friendship” or simply “friendship between your guys.”

Phonological neologisms. They arise through a combination of sounds or onomatopoeic interjections. They can often be found in typical American slang. For example, the word geek used as slang in everyday speech of ordinary people or characters in order to emphasize isolation enough smart person or character.

Semantic neologisms. These are newer meanings of previously known words, i.e. words that previously had one meaning acquire another one - a new one. For example, the phrase black hats has acquired a new meaning "Hitler propaganda", it can also be translated as "big lie".

Morphological neologisms. They are created using morphemes that already exist in the language. Thus, they have a lesser degree of novelty. In turn, they are divided into “affixal” and “suffixal”.

Affixal neologisms. These are words or phrases that are reproduced entirely in line with the word-formation traditions of a particular language. For example: beat + -nik – beatnik – fan of beat music.

Suffix neologisms. These language units are represented by adding suffixes. Most often they are used to create common expressions and are used more often in everyday speech. The following suffixes are used to create new words: -de, -over, -pre, -under. For example: weep translated into Russian by the verb "cry", when adding a suffix to a word –y it turns out to be a noun weepy, meaning "crybaby".

Composition. In this form, the meanings of words are added together. For example, young people often use the phrase friend zone, in order to indicate a certain line in the relationship.

Conversion. With the help of conversion, new words arise without any word formation. For example, verb to butterfly has meaning "to walk aimlessly somewhere".

Abbreviations. This is one of the popular ways of word formation among young people. Thanks to this method, a tendency has arisen for a rational approach to language and saving language resources, since abbreviations mean abbreviations, mergers, truncations, etc. For example, VIP – very important person, DVD – digital versatile disc, AD(from Latin) – Anno Domini, u-you.

Acronyms make up a special group. For example, WINE – wine is not an emulator. They are also more popular among young people.

Truncations are most often used to save space (for example, when writing messages). Examples include truncations such as shopaholic – shop And alcoholic, sis – sister, zine-magazine.

Borrowings. This is the most common way of forming neologisms these days. It is found both in ordinary, everyday speech and in literature. Borrowing is the most in a simple way education, since they do not require the addition of any linguistic elements. For example: jeans firmly entrenched in the Russian language and denote pants made of denim; ivory in Russian “serves” to denote color, that is, they often talk about things “ivory-colored.”

Author's neologisms. These are phrases, expressions, words that are an invention of the author to create an artistic image or serve another artistic purpose. For example, J. K. Rowling in the work “Harry Potter” introduced such a neologism as butterbeer, which means "butterbeer" In turn, R. Dahl in the novel “The BFG, or the Big and Good Giant” introduced so many new words that most of them were simply lost in translation. Perhaps this is why this work has not gained much popularity among Russian-speaking readers.

After a detailed examination of neologisms, the question arises: how should they be translated? After all modern world does not stand still, there is an active process of globalization, the language is changing as linguistic realities change. The translator inevitably encounters neologisms. Context often helps a professional, but you can’t rely on it alone. It is also necessary to have background knowledge, knowledge of the culture and traditions of a particular language. The following translation methods exist.

Transliteration. This is a translation transformation in which individual words of one graphic system are transmitted letter by letter using the means of another system. For example, trend - “trend”(a new trend in fashion); club - “club”(night establishment or association of interests); skateboarding - “skateboarding”(denotes the process by which a person can skateboard).

Transcription. A method of translating a lexical unit of the original by recreating its sound form using letters of the target language. For example, rating - “rating”(evaluation of something); file - “file”(any document). This method of translation has become very popular Lately when translating dystopian youth novels. An example is the fictional worlds of S. Collins, presented in her Divergent novels. divergent- “deviant”), “Insurgent” (eng. Insurgent- “rebel, rebel”) and “Eligent” (eng. allegiant- “adept, young adherent”).

Tracing. This method consists in the fact that words, phrases and expressions of one language are translated into another by completely replacing them components lexical correspondences in the target language. For example, miniskirt - "mini skirt"(item of women's wardrobe); sky-scraper – skyscraper(denotes a high-rise building); non-stop - “non-stop”(continuity of something).

Descriptive translation. Its essence is to convey the meaning of a word using enough detailed explanation. For example, logic bombs – “secret installation into a program, a certain set of commands”.

The role of neologisms in language is quite large. Firstly, they serve as a tool for giving objects a certain figurative characteristic. Secondly, they perform a nominative function. They arise to name new concepts that are associated with developments in the scientific and technical fields. Thirdly, in some cases they are used in the process of creating a vivid artistic image, giving the text a special stylistic charm.

Neologisms are increasingly entering our everyday speech every day and undoubtedly influence the development of language. Based on this, we can conclude that it is important for a translator to constantly stay informed and be able not to get lost in an ever-evolving world. A competent and professional translator, encountering neologisms in the source text, should try to translate them as stylistically accurately as possible, without changing the original meaning of the word, and also know whether a particular translation is appropriate in a particular setting or situation, and whether it changes the intent and whether it distorts the meaning originally invested in it.

Bibliography

1. Vinogradov V. S. Introduction to translation studies. M.: Publishing house of the Institute of General Secondary Education RAO, 2001. 224 p.

2. Komissarov V. N. Translation theory. M.: graduate School, 1990. 253 p.

3. Krasheninnikova E.I. The grammatical aspect of the Giant’s speech from R. Dahl’s novel “The BFG, or the Big and Good Giant” // Applied linguistics today and tomorrow: current problems: Materials of the VIII Medvarsity Student Forum on Applied Linguistics. M.: International Institute Management "LINK", 2017. pp. 69–71.

4. Krasheninnikova E. I., Krasheninnikova N. A. The problem of translating modern works of fiction (on the example of novels by S. Collins and W. Roth) // Current problems of modern cognitive science: Materials of the VII All-Russian scientific and practical conference with international participation (16–18 October 2014). Ivanovo, 2014. pp. 85–86.

5. Kochelaeva E. Ya., Krasheninnikova E. I., Krasheninnikova N. A. Problems of translating modern dystopian youth novels // Scientific notes Ulyanovsky state university. Current problems of linguistics and teaching linguistic disciplines. Ulyanovsk: UlGU, 2016. pp. 70–72.

6. Lopatin V.V. The Birth of the Word. Neologisms and occasional formations. M.: Nauka, 1973. 152 p.

7. Oxford Student's Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. 769 pp.

8. Urban Dictionary. URL: https://www.urbandictionary.com/.

Translation of neologisms

Transcription and transliteration

In translation theory, there are several ways of transmitting English neologisms into Russian. In Fig. 3 (see Appendix B) shows the types of equivalents in the target language (TL) to new words in the source language (TL).

1. transcription, transliteration are quasi-translation-free methods of transmitting neologisms. They are named so because when using these techniques, the act of translation is, as it were, bypassed and replaced by the act of borrowing the sound (during transcription) or graphic (during transliteration) form of the word along with the meaning from the FL into the TL. However, the lack of translation of this technique is actually only apparent: in fact, here borrowing is carried out precisely for the sake of translation as a necessary prerequisite for its implementation. The borrowed word becomes a fact of the TL and, as such, acts as the equivalent of an externally identical foreign word. Essentially, this path is one of the oldest and most widespread at the stage of natural (preliterate) language contacts, but it continues to play a significant role at the present time. True, the use of this technique in our time is associated with a number of restrictions (language policy, stylistic norms, traditions of various sociolinguistic groups, etc.).

The transliteration method is to use Russian letters to convey the letters that make up English word, for example, put - "put" (option), Nikkei - "Nikkei" (index of securities rates on the Tokyo Stock Exchange), etc. Transliteration was widely used by translators until late XIX century. To do this, the translator did not need to know the pronunciation of the English word, and he could limit himself to its visual perception.

The technique of transcription, which consists in conveying not the orthographic form of a word, but the phonetic one, is much more widespread in the translation practice of the present time. Due to the significant difference phonetic systems Russian and English languages, such a transfer is always somewhat conventional and reproduces only some semblance of the English sound.

The translator should always keep in mind that when using the transcription technique there is always an element of transliteration. Elements of transliteration during transcription are found in the following:

transliteration of unpronounceable sounds,

transliteration of reduced vowels,

transmission of double consonants,

if there are several pronunciation options, choose the option that is closer to the graphics.

Tracing

Among the actual translation methods, tracing stands out as a separate branch, which occupies an intermediate position between fully translated and untranslatable methods of transmitting neologisms. The “untranslatability” of tracing is manifested in the preservation of an unchanged internal form of the word (cf. the preservation of an unchanged external form during untranslation). Tracing assumes the existence of two-way interlingual correspondences between elementary lexical units, which are used as “ building material” to recreate the internal form of a borrowed or translated word. Classic example- neologism “skyscraper” - skyscraper.

In Tolkien, the neologism Wingfoot is formed by combining the two stems wing - wing and foot - leg. But since in context given word is a proper noun, then the translators were faced with the task of making this word a proper noun, the translators translate it by tracing using the connecting vowel of the Russian language -о-, and in the translation Wingfoot is Krylonog (a fairy-tale character from Tolkien’s trilogy “The Lord of the Rings”).

Tracing as a technique for creating an equivalent is akin to literal translation - the equivalent of the whole is created by simply adding the equivalents of its component parts. The advantage of tracing is the brevity and simplicity of the equivalent obtained with its help and its unambiguous correlation with the original word, reaching the complete reversibility of the correspondence.

The advantage of tracing is the brevity and simplicity of the equivalent obtained with its help and its unambiguous correlation with the original word, reaching the complete reversibility of the correspondence.

Although tracing equivalents “suffer” from literalism, their brevity and potential terminology make them very attractive for use in newspaper, journalistic and social scientific works.

Descriptive translation

Descriptive equivalents refer to non-calculating methods of transmitting neologisms and are fundamentally different from calques in that in descriptive methods of transmitting neologisms the translation invariant is precisely the meaning of the foreign language unit, regardless of the nature of its connections with external structure words, while in tracing the invariant of translation is the form of the language unit (though not audio or graphic, as in transcription or transliteration, but lexical or lexico-morphological), the content side remains, as it were, “outside the bracket”.

In other words, descriptive translation consists of conveying the meaning of an English word using a more or less common explanation. This method can be used both to explain the meaning in the dictionary and when translating neologisms in a specific text.

Descriptive translation is carried out in various ways. Let's consider two cases.

The exchange term open outcry, using tracing, could be conveyed as an “open cry” without being embarrassed by literalism, since everyone knows that on the exchange it is necessary to respond very quickly to supply and demand and when setting a price, in order to get ahead of competitors, do not shout It's just not possible. However, this method of transmission (let alone transcription or transliteration) is unacceptable, since it does not reveal the meaning of this word. In this case, the most appropriate technique would be descriptive translation. So, the meaning of the term can be taken as an explanation in a fairly authoritative explanatory dictionary of a foreign language. Yes, in The Oxford Dictionary for the Business World (1993) explains the meaning of the term open outcry as “a meeting of commodity brokers with dealers in order to form a transaction. Traders usu. form a ring around the person shouting out bids and offers”, and the translation in this case will sound like this: a method of exchange trading through direct contact between the seller and the buyer.

The method of descriptive translation considered in this example can be called explanatory, since the equivalent, as it were, explains the essential elements of the meaning of the word being translated. Explanatory translation is closer to the interpretation of a word, but it still remains a translation and is suitable for use in a real text.

However, even with the optimal selection of an explanatory equivalent, it has such disadvantages as verbosity and some optionality of the equivalent in the TL.

The technique of descriptive translation can be implemented in another way. Substitution translation is a method of transmitting a neologism in which a word (or phrase) already existing in the TL is used as its equivalent, which is not a neologism in it, but has sufficient common meaning with the original word. Examples of such a complete coincidence of volumes of values ​​within a pair of lexicographic correspondences can be: order interval - “order cycle” (interval between successive orders), managed floating rate - “adjusted floating rate”.

Coincidence of volumes of values ​​- relatively rare case. Much more often, during substitution, a semantic transformation occurs, i.e. the SL word is represented by the TL word, the meaning of which differs in its volume or content. This transformation can be either concentric or displaced. In the first case, the meaning is narrowed or expanded when the FL word is replaced by its PL equivalent. In the second, there is an incomplete coincidence of the meanings of the correlating pair of words in content.

An example of a concentric transformation is transition country - “country with a transition economy” (narrowing of the meaning; literally “country of transition”), industrial country - “industrially developed country” (narrowing of the meaning; literally “industrial country”). .

Equivalents with a shifted meaning among substitution equivalents are found quite often, which is quite natural, since the substitution technique is essentially used precisely when the compared languages ​​do not have congruent pairs of lexical equivalents. For example, exchange rate - "exchange rate" (literally - "exchange level").

Functional replacement

The technique of functional replacement, or the search for a functional analogue, is most often used to translate author's neologisms and realias, because it is especially relevant in the case of so-called non-equivalent vocabulary, i.e. when none of the matches offered by the dictionary are suitable for the given context. In the rapidly developing modern civilization, new words are no less rapidly emerging to denote objects and phenomena that individual peoples or entire groups of countries face.

No new dictionaries or additions or appendices to dictionaries can keep up with such a flow of word formation, and, in essence, it is the translators who first have to take the “blow on themselves”, invent functional correspondences, which may later turn out to be either successful and included in the dictionary of the translating language, and then behind this - and into bilingual dictionaries, or less successful ones, suitable only for one-time use.

A functional analogue, according to S. Vlahov, allows one concept unfamiliar to the reader of the translation to be replaced by another, familiar one. S.P. Romanova calls this technique analogue, or approximate correspondence, and defines it as a word or phrase in the target language used to denote a concept that is similar, but does not coincide with the concept of the original language.

OK. Latyshev calls this technique approximate (assimilating) translation and defines it as a method of transmitting non-equivalent vocabulary, which consists in the process of searching in the target language for a concept that, although it does not completely coincide with foreign reality, has significant semantic similarity with it.

For example, the concepts of Santa Claus and Father Frost cannot be considered identical, but in some cases they can replace each other during translation. .

Thus, an analogue is always either wider or equal in meaning than the corresponding reality. It is conventionally equated with reality, since it has a common semantic core with it.

S.P. Romanova advises to ignore the differences, but in a context where the specifics of reality are emphasized, translation using an analogue may seem at least strange: We came into the drugstore to have a cup of coffee. (We went to the pharmacy for a cup of coffee).

Neologisms (from Greek. neos"new" + logos“word”) are new words or phrases that appeared in the language as a result of socio-political changes, the development of science and technology, new living conditions to designate a new, previously unknown object or phenomenon, or to express a new concept6. For example: Wikipedia- Wikipedia(multilingual, publicly accessible, freely distributed encyclopedia published on the Internet); GPS (global positioning system) - GPS(satellite navigation system, actively used at present, including in cars), etc.

It is obvious that new words or phrases are perceived as neologisms until the objects, phenomena or concepts they denote become familiar. Over time, as a rule, such units become commonly used and are included in the vocabulary of the language. So, for example, also

just recently words software, laptop, CD, virtual, e-mail V English language were neologisms. Currently, due to the fact that the objects and concepts that they denote are no longer perceived as something new and unusual, and the words themselves are no longer neologisms.

The main difficulties in translating neologisms are related to the fact that new words are most often not yet registered in dictionaries and the translator needs to establish the meaning of the new unit himself. To do this, the translator must analyze the structure of the neologism, establish the method of its formation, carefully study the context in which the word was found, if possible using the Internet or other sources, find examples of the use of this word.

The first clue to the translator on the way to establishing the meaning of a neologism is the way of forming a new word.

Ways to form neologisms

When forming neologisms, the methods of nomination already existing in the language are most often used: either internal (affixation, compounding, abbreviation, conversion, semantic derivation, etc.), or external (borrowings).

Let us dwell in more detail on each of these methods of forming neologisms.

1. The formation of neologisms with the help of pref i ks o w and s u ff i k s o v is one of the most productive ways of commemoration in the English language:

iconize (from icon) "reduce (a window on a video display terminal)to a small symbol or graphic";

lookism (from look) "prejudice or discrimination on the grounds of a person"s appearance";

deconflict (from conflict) "resolve the conflicts or contradictions";

reinstall (from install) "install again (used especially of software)"And etc..

2. New lexical units can be created by adding words in its various variants:

A) addition words: blamestorm (on the pattern of brainstorm)"group discussion regarding the assigning of responsibility for a failure or mistake";

b) truncation (addition syllables, morphemes or fragments morphemes) - affluent (blend of affluent and influential) - "rich and socially influential".

The formation of new words can occur by analogy with word-formation models or even words already existing in the language. For example, wordyettie (from young entrepreneurial technocrat on the pattern of yuppie) - "a young person who earns money from a business or activity that involves the Internet."By analogy with the word e-mail, the neologisms e-business were created,e- marketplace, e- book, e- fit, e- therapy, e- tailerand others in which the element e- has the meaning of belonging to the concept, object, phenomenon of the Internet.

3. A separate group includes neologisms formed with the help of a b r e v i a c i i , i.e. from the initial letters or from the initial sounds of words included in the original phrase:ICT (information and computing technology); SMS (short message (or messaging) service) etc. An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of words or phrases, pronounced as a single whole, is called an acronym. An example of an acronym neologism is the word BOGOF (buy one, get one free), pronounced [bɒgɒf].

4. One of the productive ways to create neologisms is semantic derivation, which leads to the assignment of one or more new meanings to a word.

For example, the word Java (Indonesian island) eventually began to be used as the name of one of the varieties of coffee grown in Indonesia, and now Java is also one of the programming languages, the creators of which were inspired to use this name by the cup itself. Java coffee.

5. Another way to form new words is conversion, for example, the formation of a verb based on a noun:to cybershop (from a cybershop) - purchase or shop for goods and services on a Web site.

6. Borrowings from other languages ​​occur in cases where the name is borrowed along with the subject or concept. Despite the fact that at present the English language is perhaps the most active source of borrowings into other world languages, including Russian, it itself is constantly being actively replenished by other languages, especially Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, and Japanese. For example: chalupa (from Spanish) - "a fried tortilla in the shape of a boat, with a spicy filling"; jihadi (from Arabic) - "a person involved in a jihad (Islamic holly war)".

Thus, the way a neologism is formed plays a big role in establishing the meaning of a new word and, consequently, in translating it.

Methods of translating neologisms

In translation practice, in those numerous cases where there is no equivalent translation, a number of techniques are used when transferring neologisms from English into Russian. These include: transliteration, transcription; tracing; descriptive translation; direct connection.

1. Transmission of neologisms using translationtransliterations Andtranscriptions. The method of transliteration is that the letters that make up an English word are transmitted using Russian letters, for example, blog - blog. The use of transcription in translation is to convey in Russian letters not the spelling form, but the sound of an English word, for example, interface, notebook, etc.

2. Translation of neologisms usingtracing consists of replacing constituent parts, morphemes or words (in the case stable phrases) original units with their lexical equivalents in the target language, for example, cyber store - online store.

Translators often resort to combined methods and, along with tracing, use transcription or transliteration, as, for example, when translating the word web-page - web page.

3. Descriptive translation used in cases where it is difficult to convey the meaning of a neologism using the previously described methods. Most often this happens in cases where the object, phenomenon or concept that the neologism names is absent in the borrowing culture, for example, carsharing (car-pooling AmE) - sharing a car (for example, with neighbors) in order to reduce the number Vehicle on roads and thus reduce the negative impact on the environment.

Quite often there is a parallel use of transcription, transliteration or tracing paper and a description of the meaning of a new word, which is given either in the text itself or in a footnote or note. This method provides the opportunity to combine the brevity and economy of the means of expression inherent in transliteration or transcription and tracing with an accurate and complete conveyance of the meaning of the correspondence. Having once explained the meaning of the unit being translated, the translator can subsequently use transliteration, transcription or tracing paper without explanation.

4. Recently, when transmitting neologisms, the technique has also been useddirect connection, which represents the use of the original spelling of an English word in a Russian text. This method represents the path of least resistance and minimal labor costs. Most often on

On the pages of periodicals you can find words consisting of two parts: English, preserving the original spelling, and Russian: web page, on-line access, etc.

The use of the direct inclusion method may be justified in cases where a neologism cannot be conveyed by any of the considered translation methods due to the specificity of its sound or spelling. For example:

Bluetooth is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other. -Technology Bluetooth convenient to use for communication between two or more devices located at a short distance from each other.

As a rule, the same neologism can be translated in different ways, but after some time one of the options replaces the others. The main criteria that must be taken into account by the translator when searching for a correspondence to an English neologism in the Russian language are brevity and unambiguous interpretation. The option proposed by the translator must be understandable to the recipient of the translation.

IN scientific articles The importance of the ability to work with neologisms is often noted. In the electronic article scientific journal « Contemporary issues science and education", which discusses ways of teaching understanding and translation of neologisms when training translators in the field professional communication The following stages of working with neologisms are distinguished:

• 1. Pre-translation analysis stage:
  • · Identify neologisms in the text.
  • · Determine the part of speech and the function that the neologism performs in a sentence.
  • · Determine the style and genre of the text, as well as the general context.
• 2. Equivalent search stage:
  • · Make an attempt to search for an equivalent in available bilingual dictionaries, including constantly updated online versions of dictionaries (http://multitran.ru, http://multilex.ru, http://poliglos.info/, http://www.oxforddictionaries .com/, Yandex Dictionaries, https://glosbe.com/, etc.).
• 3. Definition search stage:
  • · Make an attempt to search for the definition of the desired word in English in available monolingual dictionaries, including constantly updated online versions of dictionaries (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/, http://www.merriam-webster.com/, https:/ /glosbe.com/, etc.). If the definition is found and the neologism is registered in the dictionary, then translate the neologism based on the definition, taking into account the general context.
• 4. The stage of determining the method of formation of a neologism:
  • · If there is no neologism in dictionaries or the meaning does not correspond to the context, it is necessary to analyze the neologism in order to determine the method of its formation (affixal method, compounding, semantic development, sound similarity, conversion, abbreviation, phraseology, etc.).
• 5. Consultation stage:
  • · In cases where identifying meaning is particularly difficult, it makes sense to seek help from online communities professional translators, such as, for example, “City of Translators” (http://www.trworkshop.net/job/).
  • · Conduct an active discussion of possible options for the meaning of a neologism in a study group using active and interactive methods ( brainstorm, ping-pong method, case study, presentation method, etc.).
• 6. Translation stage:

Based on the identified meaning, translate the neologism using generally accepted translation techniques for their translation.

These include: transliteration, transcription; tracing; descriptive translation; direct connection.

The method of transliteration is that the letters that make up an English word are transmitted using Russian letters, for example, blog [p. 157, Misuno E.A., Shablygina I.V. Translation from English into Russian. Workshop. - M.: Aversev, 2009. - 256 p.]. The lack of translation of this technique is actually only apparent: in fact, here borrowing is carried out precisely for the sake of translation as a necessary prerequisite for its implementation. A borrowed word becomes a fact of the language and, as such, acts as an equivalent to an externally identical foreign word. Essentially, this path is one of the oldest and most widespread at the stage of natural (preliterate) language contacts, but it continues to play a significant role at the present time. True, the use of this technique in our time is associated with a number of restrictions (language policy, stylistic norms, traditions of various sociolinguistic groups, etc.) [p. 153, Catford JK. Linguistic theory of translation. - M.: URSS Editorial, 2004. - 208 p.].

The use of transcription in translation is to convey in Russian letters not the spelling form, but the sound of an English word, for example, interface, notebook, etc. [p. 157, Misuno E.A., Shablygina I.V. Translation from English into Russian. Workshop. - M.: Aversev, 2009. - 256 p.]. The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription while preserving some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages ​​differ significantly from each other, the transmission of the form of a word foreign language in the target language is always somewhat conditional and approximate. For each pair of languages, rules for transmitting the sound composition of a word in the source language are developed, cases of preservation of transliteration elements and traditional exceptions to the rules currently accepted are indicated. In English-Russian translations, the most frequently encountered transliteration elements when transcribing are mainly the transliteration of some unpronounceable consonants and reduced vowels (Dorset - Dorset, Campbell - Campbell) transfer of double consonants between vowels and at the end of words after vowels (Bonners Ferry - Bonners Ferry, boss - boss, Сhurchill - churchillo) and preserving some of the spelling features of the word, allowing the sound of the word in translation to be brought closer to already known examples (Hurcules missile - Hercules rocket, deescalation - de-escalation, columbia - Colombia) [p. 318, Shcherba L.V. Language system and speech activity. - 2nd ed. - M.: URSS Editorial. 2004. - 432 p.].

3. Translation of neologisms using tracing involves replacing the constituent parts, morphemes or words (in the case of set phrases) of the original unit with their lexical equivalents in the target language, for example, cyber store - online store [p. 158, Misuno E.A., Shablygina I.V. Translation from English into Russian. Workshop. - M.: Aversev, 2009. - 256 p.].

The “non-translation” nature of tracing is manifested in the preservation of an unchanged internal form of the word (cf. the preservation of an unchanged external form during untranslated transmission). Tracing assumes the existence of two-way interlingual correspondences between elementary lexical units, which are used as “building material” for recreating the internal form of a borrowed or translated word.

Tracing as a technique for creating an equivalent is akin to literal translation - the equivalent of the whole is created by simply adding the equivalents of its component parts. It follows that only neologisms of a compound word are subject to tracing. For example, the word multicurrency consists of multi and currency, both individually can be translated as “many” (a suffix denoting multiplicity) and “currency”, when added together it becomes “multi-currency (for example, a loan).” Often in the process of translation, transcription and tracing are used simultaneously: transnational - transnational, petrodollar - petrodollar [p. 55, Kazakova T.A. Practical fundamentals of translation. English-Russian. - St. Petersburg: Union, 2002. - 320 p.].

The advantage of tracing is the brevity and simplicity of the equivalent obtained with its help and its unambiguous correlation with the original word, reaching the complete reversibility of the correspondence.

Although tracing equivalents “suffer” from literalism, their brevity and potential terminology make them very attractive for use in newspaper, journalistic and social scientific works. For example: air bridge air bridge, shadow cabinet shadow cabinet, nuclear umbrella nuclear umbrella, brain trust brain trust, Brown Berets brown berets [p. 190, Barannikova L.I. Introduction to linguistics. - M.: Publishing house Saratov University, 1973. - 383 pp.].

Translators often resort to combined methods and, along with tracing, use transcription or transliteration, as, for example, when translating the word web-page - web page.

Quite often there is a parallel use of transcription, transliteration or tracing paper and a description of the meaning of a new word, which is given either in the text itself or in a footnote or note. This method provides the opportunity to combine the brevity and economy of the means of expression inherent in transliteration or transcription and tracing with an accurate and complete conveyance of the meaning of the correspondence. Having once explained the meaning of the unit being translated, the translator can subsequently use transliteration, transcription or tracing paper without explanation [p. 158, Misuno E.A., Shablygina I.V. Translation from English into Russian. Workshop. - M.: Aversev, 2009. - 256 p.].

4. Descriptive translation is used in cases where it is difficult to convey the meaning of a neologism using the previously described methods. Most often this happens in cases where the object, phenomenon or concept that the neologism names is absent in the borrowing culture, for example, carsharing - sharing a car (for example, with neighbors) in order to reduce the number of vehicles on the roads and thus reduce negative impact on the environment [p. 158, Misuno E.A., Shablygina I.V. Translation from English into Russian. Workshop. - M.: Aversev, 2009. - 256 p.].

Descriptive equivalents refer to non-calculating methods of transmitting neologisms and are fundamentally different from tracing paper in that in descriptive methods of transmitting neologisms the translation invariant is precisely the meaning of the foreign language unit, regardless of the nature of its connections with the external structure of the word, while in tracing the translation invariant is the form of the foreign language unit language (though not the sound or graphic, as in transcribing or transliteration, but the lexical or lexico-morphological), the content side remains, as it were, “outside the bracket.”

In other words, descriptive translation consists of conveying the meaning of an English word using a more or less common explanation. This method can be used both to explain the meaning in the dictionary and when translating neologisms in a specific text.

Descriptive translation is carried out in various ways. Let's consider two cases.

a) The exchange term open outcry, using tracing, could be conveyed as an “open cry” without being embarrassed by literalism, since everyone knows that on the exchange it is necessary to react very quickly to supply and demand and when setting a price, in order to identify competitors, It’s simply impossible not to scream. However, this method of transmission (and even more so transcribing or transliterating) is unacceptable, since it does not reveal the meaning of this word. In this case, the most appropriate technique would be descriptive translation. So, the meaning of terminal can be taken as an explanation in a fairly authoritative explanatory dictionary of a foreign language. Thus, in The Oxford Dictionary for the Business World (1993), the meaning of open outcry is explained as “a meeting of commodity brokers with dealers in order to form a transaction. Traders use form a ring around the person shouting out bids and offers”, and the translation in this case will sound like this: a method of exchange trading through direct contact between the seller and the buyer.

We call the method of descriptive translation considered in this example explanatory, since the equivalent, as it were, explains the essential elements of the meaning of the word being translated. Explanatory translation is closer to the interpretation of a word, but it is still a translation and is suitable for use in a real text. However, even with the optimal selection of an explanatory equivalent, it has such disadvantages as verbosity and some optionality of the equivalent in the translated language.

b) The technique of descriptive translation can be implemented in another way. Substitution translation is a technique for conveying a neologism in which a word (or phrase) that already exists in the target language, which is not a neologism in it, but has sufficient commonality of meaning with the source word, is used as its equivalent. Ideally, semantic congruence can be achieved here, i.e. coincidence of the scope of denotative meanings (with inevitable discrepancies in some connotative elements). Examples of such a complete coincidence of volumes of values ​​within a pair of lexicographic correspondences can be: order interval - “order cycle” (interval between successive orders), managed floating rate - “adjusted floating rate”.

Coincidence of volumes of values ​​is a relatively rare case. Much more often, during substitution, a semantic transformation occurs, i.e. a word of a foreign language is conveyed by a word of the target language, the meaning of which differs in its volume or content. This transformation can be either concentric or displaced. In the first case, the meaning is narrowed or expanded when a word in a foreign language is replaced by its translation language equivalent. In the second, there is an incomplete coincidence of the meanings of the correlating pair of words in content.

An example of a concentric transformation is transition country - “country with a transition economy” (narrowing of the meaning; literally “country of transition”), industrial country - “industrially developed country” (narrowing of the meaning; literally “industrial country”).

Equivalents with a shifted meaning among substitution equivalents are found quite often, which is quite natural, since the substitution technique is essentially used precisely when the compared languages ​​do not have congruent pairs of lexical equivalents. For example, exchange rate - “exchange rate” (literally - “exchange level”).

5. Recently, when transmitting neologisms, the technique of direct inclusion has also been used, which is the use of the original spelling of an English word in a Russian text. This method represents the path of least resistance and minimal labor costs. Most often on the pages of periodicals you can find words consisting of two parts: English, with the original spelling preserved, and Russian: web page, on-line access, etc.

The use of the direct inclusion method may be justified in cases where a neologism cannot be conveyed by any of the considered translation methods due to the specificity of its sound or spelling. For example: Bluetooth is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other. - Bluetooth technology is convenient to use for communication between two or more devices located at a short distance from each other.

As a rule, the same neologism can be translated in different ways, but after some time one of the options replaces the others. The main criteria that must be taken into account by the translator when searching for a correspondence to an English neologism in the Russian language are brevity and unambiguous interpretation. The option proposed by the translator must be understandable to the recipient of the translation [p. 159, Misuno E.A., Shablygina I.V. Translation from English into Russian. Workshop. - M.: Aversev, 2009. - 256 p.].

Having studied the literature on this topic, we can conclude that the process of translating neologisms has a number of features.

The main difficulty in translating neologisms is understanding the meaning of a new word. It is important to be able to work with dictionaries. Know in which dictionaries you can find this neologism and with the help of which you can translate a new one. Pay attention to the context in which the neologism is located.

The features of the translation of each new word depend on what type of words it belongs to, be it a term, name, etc.

Also characteristic feature neologisms is the circumstance that something does not have a correspondence in the Russian language.

Translating neologisms should be approached in stages, first checking certain dictionaries and resources before translating them yourself using various techniques. The main methods of translating English neologisms include transliteration, transcription, tracing, descriptive translation and direct inclusion. But the most common are transliteration, transcription and tracing. Methods of descriptive translation and direct inclusion are resorted to only when the first three methods are not suitable or cannot give the desired result.

New terms that have appeared in English and are missing in English-Russian dictionaries, difficult to translate.

When translating neologisms, you need to know how they are formed and be able to analyze the structure of a word or phrase. So, in the word follower the suffix -er means actor or an object - a device, a machine, a device, and the meaning of the base is “to follow”, “to follow something”. Based on the structure of the word, based on the context, we select the most appropriate meaning in Russian for the term follower: 1) “cathode follower” ( glad.); 2) “tracking mechanism”.

Neologisms that do not have correspondence in the Russian language, as a rule, are first translated differently, and only after a certain period of time the best of the proposed options for a given neologism is selected, which is fixed in the Russian language. Thus, the term push-pull is translated as “push-pull”. But this translation did not satisfy the experts, and the translation of the term using transliteration, that is, “pushpul,” became widespread. Another example of translation using transliteration is the word piggyback “riding children on the back of adults.” In the United States, in the literature on transport, this word began to denote the transportation of loaded vans on railway platforms. However, the new meaning of the word has not yet been reflected in either English or Russian explanatory dictionaries, and it can be found in technical literature in Russian as “piggybuck”.

Let's look at several examples of translating neologisms in accordance with the methods of their formation.

1. If in English new combinations of Greek-Latin roots are used to name a new concept, then these new combinations are transferred to the Russian language by transcription. In this way, for example, the terms “ion” ( Greek. “going”), “electrode” ( Greek. “path of electrons”), in the same way more and more new terms enter the Russian language (compare, for example, holograph ( Greek. hol graphein) – rus. “holo-graph”. When a transcribed word first appears in a Russian text, a detailed explanation of the terms is usually given in a footnote.

If in English the roots of the vocabulary fund of the same language are used to form a new word, during translation a partial transcription occurs, with the “Russianization” of the word, i.e. his acquisition of Russian endings, suffixes, etc. For example, the word scanning is translated into Russian as “scanning” (a combination of transcription with a Russian suffix), or robotology - “robotics” (by analogy with Russian “geology”, “zoology”, etc.), or sonolysis - “sonolysis ” (this option is shorter and, therefore, more convenient than the descriptive translation “decomposition under the influence of sound”).

Sometimes it becomes necessary to give a verbal designation to a set of new interrelated concepts so that they form an integral system. Thus, the Italian chemist Natt, developing a new direction in polymer chemistry, developed terminology, using Greek roots and combining them with the roots and words of the English language:

tactic polymer – “tactical polymer”

entactic polymer – “ethactic polymer”

atactic pollymer - “atactic polymer”

isotactic polymer – “isotactic polymer”.

As we see, to translate this system of terms into Russian, a combination of transcription with “Russification” of words was used - giving them Russian endings (from this artificially created terminological system we did not get practical application only the second is “tactical”).

2. When compounding words, the most diverse parts of speech, including function words, are combined to form new words. For example, the word brainpower was formed as a result of the merger of two nouns, the word break-through is the result of combining a verb and a postposition, and the word breakeven combines a verb and an adjective. Such new formations are translated into Russian in several ways. The choice of method is determined by two factors:

1) from what parts of speech the complex English word was formed and

2) what part of speech this new formation functions in the text.

Neoplasms of this type can be divided into two groups. The first group includes neologisms made up of nouns or a combination of a noun and an adjective (such as brainpower, brassboard, etc.). The second group includes neologisms that include a verb (such as breakthrough, backup, etc.).

If neologisms belonging to the first group function as nouns in the text, then they represent independent syntactic units. Such neologisms are translated by combining a noun with an adjective that defines it, for example:

We can identify brainpower as a new resource on which a nation depends.

We can characterize scientific personnel as new potential, from

on which the development of the country depends.

The word brainpower is translated as “scientific personnel”. If so compound word operates in English text as a definition of any syntactic unit, the meaning of this word is transmitted into Russian using an adjective defining the same syntactic unit. For example:

Breadboard version of the engine completed its first test.

New testing of the laboratory version of the engine has been completed.

Neologisms belonging to the second group we have identified are translated using other linguistic means, the choice of which also depends on the way the new unit functions in the text.

If neologisms, which include a verb, function in the text as verbs and act as a predicate, then they are transmitted into Russian in the verbal form, in the form of a predicate: a verb with an adverbial adverb or a compound nominal. For example:

If the loadfactor falls to 50%, than the machine will only breakeven.

If the load factor decreases to 50%, then operation

(aircraft) will only break even.

The world airlines expect to either breakeven or show only a modest less for

International air transport companies expect to finish

1995 either without losses or with only minor losses.

If a complex new formation with a verb included in it functions in the text as a noun, it is translated into Russian as a verbal noun. For example:

Backup involves having one computer on-line and the other.

Redundancy consists in the fact that one computer line

is included in the operating system, and the other is a backup.

In this case, a noun is not necessarily an independent syntactic unit; it can be part of another syntactic unit (compare, for example, the rate of build-up of technical effort in the country - the rate of technology development in the country). If such a complex new formation is part of a syntactic unit, then such a neologism can sometimes be transmitted into Russian as a participle. For example:

Backup hardware should be interchangeable without rewiring any

Duplicate elements must be interchangeable, without

the need to remount any parts.

3. Translation of known words into new phrases that become stable and terminological is carried out in various ways. Let's look at the main ones.