Formation of a unified Russian state. Reforms of Ivan III. Formation of the Russian centralized state. Ivan III The Role of the Boyar Duma

Years of life: January 22, 1440 - October 27, 1505
Reign: 1462-1505

From the Rurik dynasty.

The son of the Moscow prince and Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of Prince Yaroslav Borovsky, granddaughter of the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo V.A. Serpukhovsky.
Also known as Ivan the Great, Ivan Saint.

Grand Duke of Moscow from 1462 to 1505.

Biography of Ivan the Great

He was born on the day of remembrance of the Apostle Timothy, so he received his baptismal name in his honor - Timothy. But thanks to the upcoming church holiday - the transfer of the relics of St. John Chrysostom, the prince received the name by which he is best known.

From a young age, the prince became an assistant to his blind father. He took an active part in the fight against Dmitry Shemyaka, went on hikes. In order to legitimize the new order of succession to the throne, Vasily II named the heir Grand Duke during his lifetime. All letters were written on behalf of the 2 great princes. In 1446, the prince, at the age of 7, became engaged to Maria, the daughter of Prince Boris Alexandrovich Tverskoy. This future marriage was supposed to become a symbol of the reconciliation of eternal rivals - Tver and Moscow.

Military campaigns play an important role in raising the heir to the throne. In 1452, the young prince was already sent by the nominal head of the army on a campaign against the Ustyug fortress of Kokshengu, which was successfully completed. Returning from the campaign with a victory, he married his bride, Maria Borisovna (June 4, 1452). Soon Dmitry Shemyaka was poisoned, and the bloody civil strife that had lasted a quarter of a century began to subside.

In 1455, young Ivan Vasilyevich makes a victorious campaign against the Tatars who invaded Rus'. In August 1460, he became the head of the Russian army, which closed the path to Moscow to the advancing Tatars of Khan Akhmat.

Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilievich

By 1462, when the Dark One died, the 22-year-old heir was already a man of many experienced, ready to solve various government issues. He was distinguished by prudence, love of power and the ability to steadily move towards his goal. Ivan Vasilyevich marked the beginning of his reign by issuing gold coins with the minted names of Ivan III and his son, the heir to the throne. Having received the right to a great reign according to the spiritual charter of his father, for the first time since the invasion of Batu, the Moscow prince did not go to the Horde to receive a label, and became the ruler of a territory of approximately 430 thousand square meters. km.
Throughout his reign, the main goal of the country's foreign policy was the unification of northeastern Rus' into a single Moscow state.

Thus, through diplomatic agreements, cunning maneuvers and force, he annexed the Yaroslavl (1463), Dimitrov (1472), Rostov (1474) principalities, the Novgorod land, the Tver principality (1485), the Belozersk principality (1486), the Vyatka (1489), part of the Ryazan, Chernigov, Seversk, Bryansk and Gomel lands.

The ruler of Moscow mercilessly fought against the princely-boyar opposition, establishing tax standards that were collected from the population in favor of the governors. The noble army and nobility began to play a greater role. In the interests of the noble landowners, a restriction was introduced on the transfer of peasants from one master to another. Peasants received the right to move only once a year - a week before the autumn St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after St. George's Day. Under him, artillery appeared as an integral part of the army.

Victories of Ivan III Vasilyevich the Great

In 1467 - 1469 successfully carried out military operations against Kazan, eventually achieving its vassalage. In 1471, he made a campaign against Novgorod and, thanks to the attack on the city in several directions, carried out by professional warriors, during the Battle of Shelon on July 14, 1471, he won the last feudal war in Rus', including the Novgorod lands into the Russian state.

After the wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1487 - 1494; 1500 - 1503), many Western Russian cities and lands went to Rus'. According to the Truce of Annunciation in 1503, the Russian state included: Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, Mtsensk, Dorogobuzh.

Successes in the expansion of the country also contributed to the growth of international relations with European countries. In particular, an alliance was concluded with the Crimean Khanate, with Khan Mengli-Girey, while the agreement directly named the enemies against whom the parties were supposed to act together - Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In subsequent years, the Russian-Crimean alliance showed its effectiveness. During the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503. Crimea remained an ally of Russia.

In 1476, the ruler of Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Khan of the Great Horde, which was supposed to lead to a clash between two long-time opponents. On October 26, 1480, the “standing on the Ugra River” ended with the actual victory of the Russian state, gaining the desired independence from the Horde. For the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke in 1480, Ivan Vasilyevich received the nickname Saint among the people.

The unification of previously fragmented Russian lands into a single state urgently required the unity of the legal system. In September 1497, the Code of Law was put into effect - a unified legislative code, which reflected the norms of such documents as: Russian Truth, Charter Charters (Dvinskaya and Belozerskaya), Pskov Judicial Charter, a number of decrees and orders.

The reign of Ivan Vasilyevich was also characterized by large-scale construction, the erection of temples, the development of architecture, and the flourishing of chronicles. Thus, the Assumption Cathedral (1479), the Faceted Chamber (1491), the Annunciation Cathedral (1489) were erected, 25 churches were built, and intensive construction of the Moscow and Novgorod Kremlin was carried out. Fortresses were built in Ivangorod (1492), in Beloozero (1486), in Velikiye Luki (1493).

The appearance of a double-headed eagle as a state symbol of the Moscow State on the seal of one of the charters issued in 1497 Ivan III Vasilievich symbolized the equality of ranks of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Grand Duke of Moscow.

Was married twice:
1) from 1452 to Maria Borisovna, daughter of the Tver prince Boris Alexandrovich (died at the age of 30, according to rumors, was poisoned): son Ivan the Young
2) from 1472 on the Byzantine princess Sophia Fominichna Palaeologus, niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine XI

sons: Vasily, Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon, Andrey
daughters: Elena, Feodosia, Elena and Evdokia

Marriages of Ivan Vasilyevich

The marriage of the Moscow sovereign with the Greek princess was an important event in Russian history. He opened the way for connections between Muscovite Rus' and the West. Soon after this, he was the first to receive the nickname Terrible, because he was a monarch for the princes of the squad, demanding unquestioning obedience and strictly punishing disobedience. At the first order of Ivan the Terrible, the heads of unwanted princes and boyars were laid on the chopping block. After his marriage, he took the title "Sovereign of All Rus'".

Over time, Ivan Vasilyevich's second marriage became one of the sources of tension at court. Two groups of court nobility emerged, one of which supported the heir to the throne - Young (son from his first marriage), and the second - the new Grand Duchess Sophia Paleologue and Vasily (son from his second marriage). This family feud, during which hostile political parties collided, was also intertwined with the church issue - about measures against the Judaizers.

Death of Tsar Ivan III Vasilyevich

At first, Grozny, after the death of his son Molodoy (died of gout), crowned his son and his grandson, Dmitry, on February 4, 1498 in the Assumption Cathedral. But soon, thanks to skillful intrigue on the part of Sophia and Vasily, he took their side. On January 18, 1505, Elena Stefanovna, Dmitry’s mother, died in captivity, and in 1509, Dmitry himself died in prison.

In the summer of 1503, the Moscow ruler became seriously ill, he became blind in one eye; partial paralysis of one arm and one leg occurred. Leaving his business, he went on a trip to the monasteries.

On October 27, 1505, Ivan the Great died. Before his death, he named his son Vasily as his heir.
The Sovereign of All Rus' was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Historians agree that this reign was extremely successful; it was under him that the Russian state, by the beginning of the 16th century, occupied an honorable international position, distinguished by new ideas and cultural and political growth.

Having won the struggle for the main reign on Russian soil, subsequent rulers of the Moscow principality continued their efforts to unite the territories around Moscow. This process was significantly accelerated by the reign of Ivan the Third, who managed to annex the Yaroslavl principality in 1463.

At the same time, the Tver Principality, as well as the so-called Novgorod Republic, were able to provide active resistance to further unification. In order to maintain their independence, the boyars even entered into an alliance with Lithuania, eventually finding themselves under the rule of Casimir IV, the Lithuanian prince.

In 1472, Moscow conquered the Perm region, and two years later redeemed the Rostov principality. In 1485, Ivan the Third, together with a large army, approached Tver and took the city in just two days without losses. After these events, Ivan the Third forms a unified state, calling himself the sovereign of all Rus'.

In the middle of the fifteenth century, the power of the Golden Horde disintegrated into independent khanates and Ivan the Third stopped paying tribute to it, putting his state above this, which became the cause of military clashes between the two states.

In 1487, Kazan recognized its dependence on Moscow, and by the end of the fifteenth century, the new state also included lands in the northeast. At the same time, Ivan manages to conquer many Ukrainian and Belarusian territories from Poland and Lithuania.

The son of Ivan the Third, Vasily the Third, also began to pursue the so-called unification policy. So in 1503 he managed to annex Pskov, essentially destroying the feudal Pskov republic. And in 1514 he recaptures Smolensk from Lithuania. In 1517 - 1523, Vasily the Third took the Ryazan principality and Chernigov.

The further process of the formation of a single powerful state also involved important internal political and socio-economic changes, which was reflected in the formation of an estate-representative monarchy. At the same time, autocracy was supported by different classes, which in turn were interested in the formation of a single state with a strong central government.

For example, during the years of land unification under Ivan the Third, the authorities changed. The Boyar Duma becomes the supreme advisory body. In addition, institutions are being formed that are in charge of various areas of public life. A number of new orders also appear, as well as governors appearing.

1. After the death of Vasily II (1462), his son Ivan III (1462-1505) becomes Grand Duke. At this time he was 22 years old. It was during his reign that the process of unification of Russian lands was completed. A cautious and prudent man, Ivan III consistently pursued his course towards the conquest of appanage principalities and the return of Russian lands seized by Lithuania. At the same time, he showed determination and iron will.

2. Under Ivan III, Novgorod was finally included in the Moscow Principality. Back in 1471, the pro-Lithuanian part of the Novgorod aristocracy, led by Martha Boretskaya, concluded an agreement with the Lithuanian prince Casimir IV: Novgorod recognized Casimir IV as its prince, accepted his governor, and the king promised help to Novgorod in the fight against the Grand Duke of Moscow. Ivan III organized a well-planned campaign against Novgorod. The main battle took place on the Shelon River. And although the Novgorodians had a huge superiority in forces (approximately 40,000 versus 5,000), they suffered a crushing defeat. Ivan III brutally dealt with representatives of the pro-Lithuanian party: some were executed, others were sent to Moscow and Kaluga and imprisoned. The independence of the Novgorod Republic was greatly undermined. After 1471, the situation in Novgorod worsened even more. In 1477, Ivan III launched a second campaign against Novgorod. In December the city was blocked on all sides. Negotiations lasted a whole month and ended with the capitulation of Novgorod. At the beginning of January 1478, the Novgorod veche was cancelled. Ivan III ordered the veche bell to be removed and sent to Moscow. The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist and became part of the Moscow Principality. Many boyars and merchants were taken from Novgorod to the central regions, and 2 thousand Moscow nobles arrived in Novgorod.

3. In 1485, Ivan III made a campaign against Tver, Prince Mikhail Tverskoy fled to Lithuania. The rivalry between the two centers of North-Eastern Rus' ended in favor of Moscow. The son of Ivan III, Ivan Ivanovich, became the prince in Tver. The Moscow principality turned into an all-Russian principality. Since 1485, the Moscow sovereign began to be called “the sovereign of all Rus'.” Under Vasily III (1505-1533), Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521) were annexed. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed. The territory of a single Russian state was formed - the largest in Europe. From the end of the 15th century. it began to be called Russia. The double-headed eagle became the emblem of the state. During this period, government bodies are formed. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke, to whom the princely-boyar power was subordinate. Along with the boyar elite and the princes of the former appanage principalities, the service nobility is gaining strength. It is a support for the Grand Duke in his fight against the boyars. For their service, nobles receive estates, which are not inherited. Naturally, the nobles are interested in supporting the grand ducal power.

Changes are taking place in the army. The feudal squads supplied by the boyars recede into the background. And the first comes out to the noble militias, noble cavalry, foot regiments with firearms (arquebuses) and artillery.

But the Grand Duke is still forced to reckon with the economic and political power of the princes and boyars. Under him there is a permanent council - the Boyar Duma. Members are appointed to this advisory body by the Grand Duke on a local basis. This is the name for the procedure for appointment to a position in accordance with birth, proximity of the family to the Grand Duke and length of service, and not according to personal abilities and merits. The Boyar Duma met daily, deciding all issues of domestic and foreign policy. But often Ivan III made decisions alone, limiting boyar power. Thus, under Ivan III, the formation of an estate-representative monarchy takes place, when the Grand Duke rules with the help of the Boyar Duma.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. orders are created - special institutions for managing military, judicial and financial affairs.

The most significant innovation of Ivan III was the judicial reform, promulgated in 1497 in the form of a special legislative collection - the Code of Laws. Until 1497, the governors of the Grand Duke, in exchange for carrying out judicial and administrative functions, received the right to collect “feed” from the subject population for their needs. They were called feeders. These officials abused the power given to them, imposed exorbitant taxes on the population, took bribes, and carried out unfair trials. The Code of Law of Ivan III prohibited bribes for legal proceedings and business management, proclaimed impartial court, and established uniform court fees for all types of judicial activities. This was a major step towards creating a judicial apparatus in the country. The Code of Law expressed in legislative form the interests of the ruling class - boyars, princes and nobles - and reflected the attack of the feudal state on the peasants. Article 57 of the Code of Laws marked the beginning of the legal formalization of serfdom. It limited the right of peasants to transfer from one feudal lord to another. From now on, the peasant could leave his feudal lord a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26), i.e. when all rural work ended. At the same time, he had to pay the feudal lord for living on his land “elderly” and all debts. The size of the “elderly” amount ranged from 50 kopecks to 1 ruble (the price of 100 pounds of rye or 7 pounds of honey).

B. Overthrow of the Horde yoke (1480)

1. In 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. The ruler of the Great Horde, Akhmat Khan, decided to force the Moscow prince to observe the old order. In the fall of 1480, Akhmat with a significant army moved towards Moscow and stopped at a tributary of the Oka - the Ugra River.

2. Ivan III convened a council at which it was decided to confront the Horde. The great sovereign went to the Ugra. At the beginning of October 1480, Akhmat twice tried to cross the river, but both times he was repulsed by Russian troops. Ivan III withdrew his troops from the river, essentially choosing a defensive plan for the war with Akhmat. Not knowing about the intentions of the Russians, Akhmat believed that they had given up their shore to him in order to lure him into a trap. With the onset of frost, Akhmat could have easily crossed the Ugra, but did not dare. This was tantamount to a Russian victory. Akhmat went to the Horde, essentially admitting defeat, and was soon killed by the Nagais. “Standing on the Ugra River” ended in victory for the Russians. In 1480, the Russian state freed itself from the Horde yoke, which lasted 240 years. It was an event of world-historical significance.

3. At the beginning of the 16th century. The process of unification of Russian lands was completed, the Russian centralized state was formed, the Great Russian nationality was formed on the basis of the East Slavic peoples living on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and the Novgorod-Pskov land. Russia also included other nationalities: Utro-Finns, Karelians, Komi, Permyaks, Nenets, Khanty, Mansi. The Russian state was formed as a multinational one.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS:

What impact did the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century have on the development of the country? ?

Can we say that in the 15th century. was a unified Russian state formed? By what signs?

TOPICS 3-4

TOPIC 3: EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOSCOW STATE

PLAN

Formation of the Moscow State. Ivan III.

Development of the Moscow state in the 16th century. Ivan IV.

Time of Troubles."

Formation of the Moscow State. Ivan III

Completion of the gathering of Russian lands around Moscow. Under the Moscow princes Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and his son Vasily III (1505 - 1533), the political and territorial formation of the Russian state was completed. Ivan III was one of the outstanding statesmen of feudal Russia. An authoritative and prudent politician who almost always acted with certainty. Possessing an extraordinary mind and breadth of political ideas, he was able to understand the urgent need to unite the Russian lands into a single power. The external threat dictated a high rate of unification, which could not be kept up with the processes of state, economic and social integration. The Grand Duchy of Moscow was replaced by the State of All Rus', which included the Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485) principalities.

The history of the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow is dramatic: Ivan III saw in the position of the pro-Lithuanian part of the boyars, led by the widow of the mayor Martha Boretskaya and her son Dmitry, a retreat from the Orthodox faith (“treason”) in favor of Catholic Lithuania, which was the reason for the war with Novgorod ( 1471). In January 1478, Novgorod autonomy was abolished - all judicial and administrative matters were transferred to the jurisdiction of Moscow. All territorial acquisitions of the Grand Duke were not subject to specific division. During the reign of Vasily III, the Pskov Republic (1510) and the Ryazan Principality (1521) were annexed to Moscow.

The end of the yoke. As a result of “standing on the Ugra” (1480), Ivan III, having concluded an alliance with the Crimean Khan, directed against the Horde Khan Akhmat, managed to put an end to Horde rule. An almost bloodless victory was achieved largely thanks to the diplomatic skill of the young Ivan III. In the 15th century The Golden Horde broke up into a number of states, while the rulers of the Great Horde, Kazan and Crimean Khanates continued to periodically carry out ruinous raids on Russian lands.

Russian-Lithuanian wars. The Lithuanian tribes living in the Baltic states united under the rule of Prince Mindaugas and by 1240 formed the state - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Under Gediminas (1316-1341) and Olgerd (1345-1377) it became one of the strongest states in Eastern Europe. Western Russian lands (Black Rus', Polotsk, Minsk and other lands) were included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and in 1404 - Smolensk land. 90% of the territory of the resulting state, stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea, was Russian lands; Russian was used at court and in official business. Lithuanian writing did not exist at all at that time.

Until the end of the 14th century, Russian regions within the state did not experience national-religious oppression. Grand Duke Jagiello converted to Catholicism in 1386 and formalized the union of the Lithuanian-Russian principality with Poland, and Catholic expansion into the western lands of Russia began. However, the majority of Russians remained faithful to Orthodoxy and ancient traditions. National-religious hostility began, developing into a fierce political struggle. As a result of the Russian-Lithuanian wars of 1487 - 1494 and 1500 - 1503. The Verkhovsky principalities, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Gomel, Bryansk went to Moscow. The creation of the Moscow state was accompanied by the establishment of a system of power here close to eastern despotism, which was greatly facilitated by the lust for power of Ivan III and Vasily III.

Internal reforms. Centralization. Under Ivan III, the process of forming the central state apparatus was underway. The Boyar Duma became a permanent advisory body under the supreme power. It included Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, from the beginning of the 16th century. - Duma nobles, later Duma clerks. The unification of the nobility of the principalities annexed to Moscow as part of the Sovereign's court continued. The relationships between the Moscow and regional princely-boyar aristocracies were regulated by localism.

At the end of the 15th century, central government institutions began to emerge, which were in charge of individual branches of government in all lands of the state. They were called huts, and later - orders. The huts were headed by boyars, but the main work was done by clerks, and from among the serving nobles - office managers and their assistants. Local administrative, financial and judicial functions were performed by the established in Rus' institution of governors and volostels, supported by feeding.

The incompleteness of the centralization process, caused by the rapid expansion of state territory due to the colonization of lands, led to the conservation of the multi-structured economy. With the formation of a unified state, a huge amount of black-plowed and confiscated privately owned lands found itself at the disposal of the Grand Duke. Service to the Grand Duke becomes the main responsibility of the boyars and free servants. Those who served for the benefit of the state were placed on new lands (landowner), they owned them conditionally while they served. The local system marked the beginning of the separation of the military service class - the nobility. New phenomena were reflected in legislation - in 1497 the first all-Russian Code of Law appeared. Article 57, legislatively formalizing the local system, limited the period for peasants to leave the landowner to a week before and a week after St. George’s Day (November 26); the peasant had to pay the elderly. From the end of the 15th century. Estates began to take shape in Rus' - the feudal aristocracy (boyars), nobility, clergy, townspeople and peasants (Christians).

Russian Orthodox Church. For all Russians in the XIV-XV centuries. the only connecting thread was the Orthodox faith. The Church supported the idea of ​​the unity of Rus'. The most significant phenomenon and event was the refusal of the Russian Orthodox Church to implement the Union of Florence of 1439. The Byzantine Empire, experiencing repeated invasions of the Ottoman Turks, turned to the Pope for help in the name of salvation. He promises help on the condition that Orthodox Byzantium recognizes the supremacy of papal Rome. An alliance (union) was concluded between the Orthodox and Catholic churches in Florence (1439). The Russian Patriarch Isidore, who supported the union, was deposed and arrested upon his return to Russia. The Ryazan Bishop Jonah, elected in 1448, became the Supreme Hierarch of the Russian Orthodox Church (Russian Orthodox Church), which indicated the distance of the Moscow Metropolis from the Patriarchate of Constantinople and its acquisition of independence (autocephaly). The leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church in the western lands that became part of the Principality of Lithuania was carried out by the Metropolitan of Kiev. The unification of the Moscow and Kyiv metropolises will occur after 1654, which marked the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

Under Ivan III, the struggle between two currents in the Russian Orthodox Church intensified: the Josephites (founder and spiritual leader Joseph Sanin-Volotsky) and the non-possessors (Sorians), prominent representatives of this trend were Nil Sorsky-Maikov, Vasily Kosoy, Maxim the Greek, Vassian Patrikeev. The attempt of non-covetous people to put into practice at a church council in 1503 the idea of ​​monasteries renouncing land ownership caused active opposition from Joseph Volotsky and his supporters. Ivan III, who hoped to replenish the state's land fund through secularization, was forced to recognize the Josephite program.

After the fall of Constantinople (1453), there was only one Orthodox kingdom left - Moscow. Russian religious thought in search of an answer to the question “Why did God punish Byzantium?” found the answer in apostasy, primarily in Uniatism. According to the Pskov monk Philotheus, author of the theory “Moscow is the third Rome,” Moscow becomes the heir to the true faith (Orthodoxy). She is the heir to the traditions of both the first Rome, on whose territory Christianity arose, and the second Rome - Constantinople. In conclusion, the author states: “Moscow is the third Rome, and there will never be a fourth.” Thus, the Moscow state was assigned the role of an outpost in the Christian world.

On March 28, 1462, Ivan III became the ruler of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The activities of the Sovereign of All Rus' had a truly “revolutionary” character for the development of Russia. Activities of the Sovereign of all Rus'.

Collected lands

It is no coincidence that Ivan III received the nickname “The Great”. It was he who managed to gather the scattered principalities of northeastern Rus' around Moscow. During his lifetime, the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities, Vyatka, Perm the Great, Tver, Novgorod and other lands became part of a single state.

Ivan III was the first of the Russian princes to accept the title “Sovereign of All Rus'” and introduced the term “Russia” into use. The Grand Duke transferred to his son a territory several times larger than what he himself inherited. Ivan III took a decisive step towards overcoming feudal fragmentation and eliminating the appanage system, laying the economic, political, legal and administrative foundations of a single state.

Liberated Rus'

For another hundred years after the Battle of Kulikovo, Russian princes continued to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. The role of liberator from the Tatar-Mongol yoke fell to Ivan III. The stand on the Ugra River, which happened in 1480, marked the final victory of Rus' in the struggle for its independence. The Horde did not dare to cross the river and enter into battle with the Russian troops. Payments of tribute ceased, the Horde became mired in civil strife and ceased to exist by the beginning of the 16th century. Moscow once again established itself as the center of the emerging Russian state.

Accepted by the Law Code

The Code of Laws of Ivan III, adopted in 1497, laid the legal foundations for overcoming feudal fragmentation. The Sudebnik established uniform legal norms for all Russian lands, thereby securing the leading role of the central government in regulating the life of the state. The code of laws covered a wide range of vital issues and affected all segments of the population. Article 57 limited the right of peasants to transfer from one feudal lord to another to the week before and the week after St. George's Day. This marked the beginning of the enslavement of the peasants. The Code of Law was progressive for its time: at the end of the 15th century, not every European country could boast of uniform legislation. The Ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund von Herberstein, translated a significant part of the Law Code into Latin. These records were also studied by German jurists, who compiled a pan-German code of laws (“Carolina”) only in 1532.

Started the path to empire

The unification of the country required a new state ideology, and its foundations appeared: Ivan III approved the double-headed eagle as the symbol of the country, which was used in the state symbols of Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. The marriage of Sophia Palaeologus, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, gave additional grounds for the idea of ​​succession of grand-ducal power from the Byzantine imperial dynasty. The origin of the Russian princes was also traced back to the Roman Emperor Augustus. After the death of Ivan III, the theory of “Moscow - the Third Rome” grew out of these ideas. But it's not just about ideology. Under Ivan III, Russia began to actively establish itself in the European arena. The series of wars he waged with Livonia and Sweden for dominance in the Baltic marked the first stage on Russia's path to the empire proclaimed by Peter I two and a half centuries later.

Triggered an architectural boom

The unification of lands under the rule of the Moscow Principality provided the basis for the flourishing of Russian culture. Throughout the country, intensive construction of fortresses, churches and monasteries was carried out. It was then that the red wall of the Moscow Kremlin was erected, and it turned into the strongest fortress of its time. During the life of Ivan III, the main part of the architectural ensemble of the Kremlin that we can see today was created. The best Italian masters were invited to Russia. Under the leadership of Aristotle Fiorovanti, the five-domed Assumption Cathedral was erected. Italian architects erected the Faceted Chamber, which became one of the symbols of royal greatness. Pskov craftsmen built the Annunciation Cathedral. Under Ivan III, about 25 churches were built in Moscow alone. The flourishing of Russian architecture convincingly reflected the process of creating a new, unified state.

Created a loyal elite

The formation of a unified state could not occur without the creation of an elite loyal to the sovereign. The local system has become an effective solution to this problem. Under Ivan III, there was an intensive recruitment of people for both military and civil service. That is why precise rules for the distribution of government lands were created (they were transferred into temporary personal possession as a reward for service). Thus, a class of service people was formed who were personally dependent on the sovereign and owed their well-being to the public service.

Entered orders

The largest state, emerging around the Moscow principality, required a unified system of government. They became orders. The main government functions were concentrated in two institutions: the Palace and the Treasury. The palace was in charge of the personal lands of the Grand Duke (that is, state ones), the Treasury was at once the Ministry of Finance, the chancellery, and the archive. Appointment to positions took place on the principle of localism, that is, depending on the nobility of the family. However, the very creation of a centralized government apparatus was of an extremely progressive nature. The order system, founded by Ivan III, finally took shape during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, and lasted until the beginning of the 18th century, when it was replaced by Peter’s collegiums.