The source of the earthquake is located at a depth of 300 km. Where are earthquakes born? The “Radiation Hazard” signal is given when

Where are earthquakes born?

At the end of the 20s of our century, it was established that earthquakes sometimes occur, the sources of which are located at a depth of 600-700 km. They were first noted in marginal areas Pacific Ocean. As material accumulated, it turned out that earthquakes with a focal depth exceeding 300 km also occur in other areas globe. Thus, impacts with a focal depth of 250-300 km occurred in the Pamirs, Hindu Kush, Kuen Lun and Himalayas, as well as in the Malay Archipelago and in the southern Atlantic Ocean.

Observations show that the sources of strong earthquakes are often located shallow. So, for 1930-1950. The foci of 800 strong earthquakes were at a depth of less than 100 km, 187 at a depth of 150 km, 78 at a depth of 250 km. During the same time, only 26 strong earthquakes occurred with a focal depth of 300 km, 25 with a depth of 450 km, 39 with a depth of 550 km and 9 with a depth of 700 km. It should be noted that determining the depth of earthquake sources is even more difficult and is not always unambiguous. Records of the weak

deep tremors are very difficult to detect and decipher on a seismograph.

Currently, based on the depth of their source, earthquakes are divided into three groups: normal, or ordinary, with a source depth of up to 60 km; intermediate - with a source depth of 60-300 km; deep-focus - with a focal depth of 300-700 km. However, this classification is to some extent arbitrary. The fact is that if normal and deep-focus earthquakes are distinguished by qualitatively different phenomena occurring in earth's crust and in the Earth's mantle, then between intermediate and deep-focus there are only purely quantitative differences.

Therefore, it is more correct to divide earthquakes, depending on the depth of the source, into only two groups: intracrustal earthquakes, the sources of which are located in the earth’s crust, and subcrustal earthquakes, the sources of which are located in the mantle.

An earthquake is simply a shaking of the ground. The waves that cause an earthquake are called seismic waves; like sound waves, radiating from the gong when it is struck, seismic waves are also emitted from some source of energy located somewhere in the upper layers of the Earth. Although the source of natural earthquakes occupies some volume of rock, it is often convenient to define it as the point from which seismic waves radiate. This point is called the focus (or hypocenter) of the earthquake. During natural earthquakes, it is, of course, located at some depth below the earth's surface. During artificial earthquakes, such as underground nuclear explosions, the focus is close to the surface. The point on the earth's surface located directly above the focus of the earthquake is called the epicenter of the earthquake.

How deep into the Earth's body are earthquake hypocenters? One of the first startling discoveries made by seismologists was that although many earthquakes focus at shallow depths, in some areas they are hundreds of kilometers deep. Such areas include the South American Andes, the islands of Tonga, Samoa, the New Hebrides, the Sea of ​​Japan, Indonesia, the Antilles in the Caribbean Sea (see Fig. 1); All of these areas contain deep ocean trenches. On average, the frequency of earthquakes here decreases sharply at depths of more than 200 km, but some foci reach even depths of 700 km. Earthquakes that occur at depths from 70 to 300 km are quite arbitrarily classified as intermediate, and those that occur at even greater depths are called deep-focus. Intermediate and deep-focus earthquakes also occur far from the Pacific region: in the Hindu Kush, Romania, the Aegean Sea and under the territory of Spain.

If the location of the sources of earthquakes occurring near island arcs is compared with their depths, an extremely interesting picture emerges. Consider the vertical section placed at the top of Fig. 3. It is built at right angles to the Tonga Arc in the South Pacific Ocean. To the east of these volcanic islands lies the Tonga Trench, deep

which in some places reaches 10 km. The lower part of the figure shows the depths of the outbreaks in projection onto a vertical plane passing through the Niumate settlement on the island of Tonga. Note that the hypocenters lie in a narrow, well-defined zone that extends from the trench down under the island arc at an angle of about 45 degrees. Below a depth of 400 km, this active zone becomes steeper, and some hypocenters are located deeper than 600 km. In other areas where deep-focus earthquakes occur, different inclination angles are noted and there are specific features in the location of the hypocenters, but the very presence of an inclined seismic zone *) is characteristic feature island arcs. In this chapter we will consider one of the explanations given for this simple but universal distribution of earthquake foci.

This book focuses on small-focus tremors, the sources of which are located directly below the earth's surface. It is shallow-focus earthquakes that cause the greatest destruction, and their contribution is 3/4 of the total amount of energy released throughout the world during earthquakes. In California, for example, all earthquakes known so far have been shallow-focus. For Central California, it was found that the vast majority of earthquakes occur there in the uppermost horizons of the Earth, at a depth of up to 5 km, and only a few hypocenters are deeper, reaching 15 km. Unfortunately, the depth of the earthquake source is various reasons cannot be determined with the same accuracy as the position of the epicenter. However, in practice, determining the depth can be a vital matter, since in a seismic area (say, in a construction area nuclear power plant) at a focal depth of 10 km, stronger shaking will occur than at a depth of 40 km.

In most cases, after moderate or strong shallow earthquakes in the same area, numerous earthquakes of smaller magnitude are observed within several hours or even several months. They are called aftershocks, and their number during a really large earthquake is sometimes extremely large. After the powerful earthquake on February 4, 1965, on the Rat Islands (in the Aleutian Islands archipelago), more than 750 aftershocks occurred over the next 24 days, so strong that they could be recorded by seismographs in remote places. Some earthquakes are preceded by preliminary shocks from the same source area - foreshocks; it is assumed that they can be used to predict the main shock (see Chapter 9).

Sometimes by the placement of focuses (if their position can be determined with the required accuracy) it is possible to establish the shape and size of the area in which earthquake sources are formed. Seismological mapping of deep rock structures is an excellent complement to the conventional field techniques that geologists use to map surface structures. An example of successful determination of the boundaries of one such area based on small-focus local earthquakes in the Oroville area (California) is given in Fig. 3 in ch. 8.

Seismic events, no matter how strange it may seem to a resident of the East European Plain, are ordinary and natural manifestations of life on our planet. Every minute, 1-2 earthquakes occur on Earth, which amounts to several hundred thousand per year, of which one is catastrophic, about ten are highly destructive, about a hundred are destructive, and about a thousand more are accompanied by minor damage to structures. Today, it is enough to look on the Internet to be convinced that the earth is constantly shaking under the feet of the inhabitants of the most different countries and all continents.

The author of these lines twice witnessed devastating earthquakes. From June 12 to the end of October 1966, I worked as part of a geological team in the vicinity of Tashkent and, in addition to numerous small tremors, I experienced two magnitude 7 ones (June 29 and July 4). And late in the evening of July 15, for more than an hour, my colleagues and I observed a bright circular glow in the sky (this often accompanies strong earthquakes). I also remember night patrols in Tashkent, daily reports on the strength of seismic tremors and very intense well organized work for clearing debris.

In May 1970, at the Derbent railway station in Dagestan, I found myself in a military train that stood for several hours due to the fact that mountains of grain were burning on the tracks, abundantly doused with petroleum products leaking from the tanks of two colliding trains. The accident happened just shortly before our arrival. The culprit of the collision was an eight-magnitude earthquake.

And eleven years later, in August 1981, I had the opportunity to directly experience an eight-point shock. We then carried out expeditionary work on the Kuril Islands on the slope of the Tyatya volcano on Kunashir Island. Suddenly the earth began to hum underfoot, and the hard, rolled dirt road for a few seconds it turned into a swamp abyss. For the rest of my life, I will remember the memories of the ground disappearing from under my feet, the feeling of the unreality of what is happening and the detachment of consciousness, a violation of the perception of time...

Later it turned out that I witnessed two earthquakes, which played an important role in establishing the connection between seismic events and increased deep degassing. During the 1966 Tashkent earthquake, the effect of increased radon degassing 2–3 weeks before the seismic event was established. During the Dagestan earthquake on May 14, 1970, it was possible to measure the concentration of gases in gaping cracks. It turned out that hydrogen concentrations during a seismic event increase by 5–6 orders of magnitude. Activation of gas emission during an earthquake is observed over an area of ​​tens and a few hundred thousand square kilometers, in a zone where the force of tremors exceeds 4 points.

The first shock of the Tashkent earthquake occurred early in the morning at 5:22 am. April 26, 1966. Intense vibrations lasted 6–7 seconds and were accompanied by an underground hum and light flashes. The source of the Tashkent earthquake was located directly under the city center at a depth of only 8 km, so the epicenter of the earthquake, the strength of which was 8 points, coincided with the city center, which suffered the most. A large number of residential buildings, especially old adobe ones, were destroyed. Naturally, the first morning shock found the city's residents in their beds, which led to casualties. Schools, factories, hospitals and other buildings were destroyed. The main shock was accompanied by repeated ones - they are called aftershocks (from English aftershock- push after push), - which were recorded for another two years, total number which exceeded 1100. The strongest (up to 7 points) were observed in May–July 1966, and the last one on March 24, 1967.

Waves, focuses and centers

Term earthquake so successful and capacious that it does not require additional explanation. An earthquake occurs as a result of an abrupt release of energy within a certain volume of the earth's interior. This volume or space is called earthquake source, hearth center - hypocenter. The projection of the hypocenter onto the Earth's surface is called epicenter. The distance from the epicenter to the hypocenter is hearth depth. The projection of the source onto the surface within which the earthquake has maximum strength is called epicentral region.

The sources of the overwhelming majority of earthquakes are located at depths of up to 50–60 km. In addition, there are deep focus earthquakes, their sources are recorded at depths of up to 650–700 km. They were discovered in the 20s of the last century on the outskirts of the Pacific Ocean. A relatively small number of earthquakes originate at depths of 300–450 km. In addition to the Pacific margins, earthquakes with deep sources (250–300 km) have been found in the Pamirs, Himalayas, Kunlun and Hindu Kush.

The geographical distribution of earthquakes on the planet is heterogeneous. Along with aseismic areas, where no significant seismic events have occurred in human memory, seismically active areas are clearly distinguished, which have the appearance of linearly elongated zones, almost 90% coinciding with areas of active volcanism. This is, first of all, the Pacific “Ring of Fire” - the zone of junction of the ocean with its continental margins. The already mentioned specificity of these zones is the presence of deep-focus earthquakes. Shallow earthquakes occur regularly in rift zones at the top of mid-ocean ridges, as well as in continental rift zones such as Lake Baikal. Interestingly, seismic zones are The Gulf of Finland Baltic Sea and Kandalaksha Bay - White. Here the strength of earthquakes reaches 7 points, and the events themselves have become more frequent in last years.

The most active seismic zone on a planetary scale is considered to be the so-called Alpine-Himalayan geosynclinal region. It covers almost half the globe, stretches from the Atlantic in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east.

We emphasize that the nature of the geographical distribution of earthquakes, coinciding with the areas of manifestation of modern volcanism and active deep degassing, directly indicates the presence genetic connection between these catastrophic phenomena.

The energy instantly released in the source spreads in the surrounding space in the form of elastic seismic waves. Matter reacts to impulse action by changing its shape and volume. Elementary changes in volume propagate in rocks in the form longitudinal waves(condensation waves), and the change in shape is in the form shear waves(shear waves). A clear example of longitudinal waves is a wave traveling along a train after a sharp push from a locomotive. Anyone who has been to freight stations will remember the characteristic sound of a train moving away, accompanying a running wave. The transverse wave is similar to the usual vibration of a string. Seismic waves obey all the laws of wave motion; at the boundaries of media they are refracted and reflected, and attenuate with distance from the source. The length of seismic waves varies from hundreds of meters to hundreds of kilometers.

The speed of propagation of longitudinal waves is 1.7 times greater than the speed of transverse waves, so they are the first to reach the Earth's surface, which is why they are also called P-waves (from English primary- primary), and transverse, respectively, S - waves (from English secondary- secondary). The longitudinal waves that arrived first at the epicenter excite surface waves, which are transverse, but unlike the primary transverse waves, their propagation speed is half as fast. In rocky soils it does not exceed 3.3–4.0 km/s. The amplitude of surface waves does not exceed a few centimeters, and the length reaches hundreds of kilometers. They diverge from the epicenter in all directions and can run around the entire planet; the meeting place of multidirectional fronts is called anti-epicenter.

In the strata of loose or viscous (sands, clays), especially water-saturated rocks, they are excited waves of gravity, the reason for their occurrence is the disintegration of particles. A certain volume of rock, thrown up by a seismic shock as a single whole, returns to its original position under the influence of gravity in the form of individual particles. The speed of gravity waves is 1000 times less than the speed of elastic vibrations and is measured in meters per second, but the amplitude can reach tens of centimeters. Thus, during the California earthquake of 1906 in in certain places surface waves up to 1 m high were observed, and the propagation of waves with a height of about 30 cm and a length of 18 m was also recorded.

Surface and gravity waves cause the most damage, causing visible ground vibrations and bending of rails, pipelines and roads.

Typically, surface movements last no more than one minute, and in 1906 the San Francisco earthquake lasted about forty seconds. However, the duration of the largest earthquake in Alaska in 1964 was five times longer. Then everything calms down, and the waves of the listed types are replaced by aftershocks caused by secondary movements of rocks at the point of initial violation of their integrity or near it. Aftershocks can last quite a long time, up to several years, and the strength of some of them can be very large. Within 24 hours after the 1964 Alaska earthquake, twenty-eight aftershocks were recorded, ten of which were quite noticeable. Aftershocks make cleanup and rescue efforts after an earthquake dangerous.

Our points against their Richter

The intensity of an earthquake is measured in points or expresses it magnitude. In Russia, a 12-point scale has been adopted, developed by; gradations of this scale have been approved as a national standard. The scale is based on the readings of seismographs, which give the magnitude of vibrations during shocks, as well as on people’s feelings and observed phenomena.

A single magnitude earthquake is called unnoticeable, is characterized by microseismic shaking of the soil, noted only by seismic instruments. In the middle of the scale there is a strong earthquake of magnitude 6. It is felt by everyone. Frightened, many people run out into the street. Strong vibrations of liquids are observed. Pictures fall from the walls, books fall from the shelves. Quite stable household items move out of place or topple over. The plaster on even well-built houses shows fine cracks. Poorly built houses have more damage, but are not dangerous.

The names of earthquakes with magnitudes from 7 to 11 are eloquent. They are named accordingly: very strong; destructive; devastating; destructive; catastrophe. The maximum on the scale is a 12-magnitude earthquake. This severe disaster- changes in the soil reach enormous proportions. All buildings are collapsing without exception. In rocky soil covered with vegetation, fault cracks form with significant displacement, shears and ruptures. Numerous rock falls, landslides, crumbling of banks over a considerable distance begin, new waterfalls appear, rivers change the direction of flow.

This scale is convenient, but non-linear. The ratio of the energy of the most powerful seismic disasters to the energy of weak earthquakes is estimated at 10 17. During strong earthquakes, the energy release is 10 23 – 10 25 erg. For comparison, we point out that the explosion energy is 15 kilotons atomic bomb approximately corresponds to a magnitude 6 earthquake.

A more accurate estimate of energy release is given by magnitude, a parameter introduced in 1935 by seismologist Charles Francis Richter (1900–1985). He defined magnitude as a number proportional to the decimal logarithm of the amplitude (expressed in micrometers) of the largest wave recorded by a standard seismograph at a distance of 100 km from the epicenter. The magnitude of an earthquake on the Richter scale can vary from 1 to 9. The already mentioned earthquake of 1906 in San Francisco had a magnitude of 8.3, but caused almost complete destruction and is estimated at 11–12 points.

Killer earthquakes

Quantity human lives, carried away by earthquakes over the entire existence of mankind, is estimated at 15 million. This is 100 times more than the number of victims of volcanic eruptions. The most destructive known earthquakes occurred in China. On July 28, 1976, approximately 160 km southeast of Beijing, in densely populated area northeast China happened very powerful earthquake with a magnitude of 8.2, the epicenter of which was in the huge industrial city of Tangshan.

Residential buildings and shops, institutions and factories turned into piles of rubble. The entire city was practically leveled to the ground. Some areas located on loose soils subsided greatly during the earthquake and became covered with many huge cracks. One of these cracks swallowed up a hospital building and a train overcrowded with passengers. The development of cracks was facilitated by the collapse of old workings in coal mines. Tangshan's population numbered one and a half million people, but very few escaped injury. There were no official reports of the disaster from China, but the Hong Kong press reported that 655,237 people had died (this figure also included earthquake victims outside Tangshan, particularly in Tianjin and Beijing).

The epicenter of an even more disastrous earthquake that occurred on January 23, 1556, was also in China, in the city of Xi'an (Shaanxi province). Xi'an is located on the banks of the great Yellow River, where plains filled with loose sediments alternate with low hills composed of thin loess material. According to eyewitnesses, entire cities sank into the ground, liquefied by the vibrations, and thousands of dwellings dug into the loose loess hills collapsed in a matter of seconds. Since the shock occurred at 5 o'clock in the morning, most families were still at home and this undoubtedly accounts for the huge number of victims - 830,000. This is the only earthquake in which there were more deaths than in the Tangshan disaster.

In Russia and the USSR in the post-war half of the last century, the most destructive were Ashgabat (October 1948); Tashkent (April 1966), Dagestan (May 1970), Spitak (December 1988) and Neftegorsk (May 1995) earthquakes, each of which claimed thousands and tens of thousands of human lives, and entire cities were wiped off the face of the earth.

Partner news

An earthquake is simply a shaking of the ground. The waves that cause an earthquake are called seismic waves; Just like the sound waves emanating from a gong when it is struck, seismic waves are also emitted from some source of energy located somewhere in the upper layers of the Earth. Although the source of natural earthquakes occupies some volume of rock, it is often convenient to define it as the point from which seismic waves radiate. This point is called the focus of the earthquake. During natural earthquakes, it is, of course, located at some depth below the earth's surface.

In man-made earthquakes, such as underground nuclear explosions, the focus is close to the surface. The point on the earth's surface located directly above the focus of the earthquake is called the epicenter of the earthquake. How deep into the Earth's body are earthquake hypocenters? One of the first startling discoveries made by seismologists was that although many earthquakes focus at shallow depths, in some areas they are hundreds of kilometers deep. Such areas include the South American Andes, the islands of Tonga, Samoa, the New Hebrides, the Sea of ​​Japan, Indonesia, the Antilles in the Caribbean Sea; All of these areas contain deep ocean trenches.

On average, the frequency of earthquakes here decreases sharply at depths of more than 200 km, but some foci reach even depths of 700 km. Earthquakes that occur at depths from 70 to 300 km are quite arbitrarily classified as intermediate, and those that occur at even greater depths are called deep-focus. Intermediate and deep-focus earthquakes also occur far from the Pacific region: in the Hindu Kush, Romania, the Aegean Sea and under the territory of Spain. Shallow-focus tremors are those whose foci are located directly below the earth's surface. It is shallow-focus earthquakes that cause the greatest destruction, and their contribution is 3/4 of the total amount of energy released throughout the world during earthquakes. In California, for example, all earthquakes known so far have been shallow-focus.

In most cases, after moderate or strong shallow earthquakes in the same area, numerous earthquakes of smaller magnitude are observed within several hours or even several months. They are called aftershocks, and their number during a really large earthquake is sometimes extremely large. Some earthquakes are preceded by preliminary shocks from the same source area - foreshocks; it is assumed that they can be used to predict the main shock. 5. Types of earthquakes Not so long ago, it was widely believed that the causes of earthquakes would be hidden in the darkness of the unknown, since they occur at depths too far from the sphere of human observation.

Today we can explain the nature of earthquakes and most of their visible properties from the perspective of physical theory. According to modern views, earthquakes reflect the process of constant geological transformation of our planet. Let us now consider the theory of the origin of earthquakes, accepted in our time, and how it helps us to better understand their nature and even predict them. The first step to accepting new views is to recognize the close connection between the locations of those areas of the globe that are most prone to earthquakes and geologically new and active areas of the Earth. Most earthquakes occur at plate margins: so we conclude that the same global geological, or tectonic, forces that create mountains, rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, and deep-sea trenches are the same forces that are the primary cause of great earthquakes.

The nature of these global forces is currently not entirely clear, but there is no doubt that their appearance is due to temperature inhomogeneities in the body of the Earth - inhomogeneities arising due to the loss of heat by radiation into the surrounding space, on the one hand, and due to the addition of heat from the decay of radioactive elements, contained in rocks, on the other. It is useful to introduce the classification of earthquakes according to the method of their formation. Tectonic earthquakes are the most common. They arise when a rupture occurs in rocks under the influence of certain geological forces. Tectonic earthquakes are of great scientific importance for understanding the interior of the Earth and have enormous practical significance for human society, since they represent the most dangerous natural phenomenon.

However, earthquakes also occur for other reasons. Tremors another type is accompanied by volcanic eruptions. And in our time, many people still believe that earthquakes are associated mainly with volcanic activity. This idea goes back to ancient Greek philosophers, who drew attention to the widespread occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes in many areas of the Mediterranean. Today we also distinguish volcanic earthquakes - those that occur in combination with volcanic activity, but we believe that both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are the result of tectonic forces acting on rocks, and they do not necessarily occur together.

The third category is formed by landslide earthquakes. These are small earthquakes that occur in areas where there are underground voids and mine openings. The immediate cause of ground vibrations is the collapse of the roof of a mine or cave. A frequently observed variation of this phenomenon is the so-called “rock bursts”. They happen when stresses around a mine opening cause large masses of rock to abruptly, explosively, separate from its face, exciting seismic waves.

Rock bursts have been observed, for example, in Canada; They are especially often noted in South Africa. Of great interest is the variety of landslide earthquakes that sometimes occur during the development of large landslides. For example, a giant landslide on the Mantaro River in Peru on April 25, 1974 generated seismic waves equivalent to a moderate earthquake. The last type of earthquakes are man-made, man-made explosive earthquakes that occur during conventional or nuclear explosions.

Underground nuclear explosions carried out over the past decades at a number of test sites around the globe have caused quite significant earthquakes. When a well deep underground explodes nuclear device, a huge amount is released nuclear energy. In millionths of a second, the pressure there jumps to values ​​thousands of times higher Atmosphere pressure, and the temperature increases in this place by millions of degrees. The surrounding rocks evaporate, forming a spherical cavity many meters in diameter. The cavity grows while the boiling rock evaporates from its surface, and the rocks around the cavity are penetrated by tiny cracks under the influence of the shock wave.

Outside this fractured zone, the dimensions of which are sometimes measured in hundreds of meters, compression in the rocks leads to the emergence of seismic waves propagating in all directions. When the first seismic compression wave reaches the surface, the soil buckles upward and, if the wave energy is high enough, surface and bedrock may be ejected into the air, forming a crater. If the hole is deep, the surface will only crack slightly and the rock will rise momentarily, only to then fall back onto the underlying layers. Some underground nuclear explosions were so powerful that the resulting seismic waves traveled through the interior of the Earth and were recorded at distant seismic stations with an amplitude equivalent to waves from earthquakes with a magnitude of 7 on the Richter scale. In some cases, these waves have shaken buildings in remote cities.

O. S. Indeikina

Life safety:

test tasks for university students

Educational and methodological manual

Cheboksary 2015

UDC 614.084(075.8)

BBK 68.9ya73

Indeikina, O. S. Life safety: test tasks for university students: educational and methodological manual / O. S. Indeikina. – Cheboksary: ​​Chuvash. state ped. univ., 2015. – 123 p.

ISBN 978-5-88297-282-9

Published by decision of the academic council of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Chuvash State Pedagogical University them. I. Ya. Yakovleva" (Minutes No. 10 of May 29, 2015).

Reviewers:

I. V. Filippova, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Technosphere Safety, Deputy. Dean of the Automobile and Highway Faculty of the Volga branch of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Moscow Automobile and Highway State Technical University(MADI)";

L. A. Alexandrova, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Biology and Fundamentals of Medical Knowledge of the Chuvash State Pedagogical University named after. I. Ya. Yakovleva.”

The manual contains test tasks on the topics of the Life Safety course for self-testing and consolidation of the material studied.

The educational and methodological manual is intended for students of higher educational institutions studying in the areas of training " Teacher Education", "Psychological and pedagogical education", "Product design light industry", "Technology of light industry products", "Operation of transport and technological machines and complexes", "Special (defectological) education", "Technosphere safety", "Applied informatics", "Government and municipal government", "Personnel Management", " Physical Culture", "Design", " Professional education(by industry)", "Service".

ISBN 978-5-88297-282-9 © Indeikina O. S., 2015

© Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education “Chuvash

state pedagogical

University named after I. Ya. Yakovleva", 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction........................................................ ............................
TOPIC 1. Theoretical basis life safety. Classification of emergency situations...................................
TOPIC 2. Russian system warnings and actions in emergency situations................................................... ............
TOPIC 3. Emergencies natural character.........
TOPIC 4. Man-made emergency situations........
TOPIC 5. Social emergencies. Criminal danger …………………………………………
TOPIC 6. Basics of fire safety………………………..
TOPIC 7. Transport and its dangers. ………………………….....
TOPIC 8. Economic, information, food security…………….................................... ...................
TOPIC 9. The public danger of extremism and terrorism..
TOPIC 10. Problems of national and international security. Civil defense …………………….......................
TOPIC 11. Modern means of destruction……………..........
TOPIC 12. Personal and collective protective equipment...
TOPIC 13. Providing first aid…………......
Answers........................................................ ................................
Bibliography................................................ .......

INTRODUCTION

The educational manual has been compiled in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State educational standard higher vocational education to the content of the discipline “Life Safety”.

The purpose of this educational and methodological manual is to attract students to self-test and evaluate their knowledge, as well as to assist teachers in drawing up and conducting control tests in this discipline. All test questions are divided into program topics, and they are easy to navigate by content. The correct answers are given at the end of the collection.

To evaluate the results of testing students' knowledge, one should focus on the following standards:

90-100% correct answers – excellent;

76-89% of correct answers – good;

60-75% correct answers – satisfactory ;

< 60% correct answers – unsatisfactory .

TOPIC 3. Emergency situations

Natural character

For each question, select only one answer that you consider the most complete and correct, or several answers if the question is marked (*). Solve crossword puzzles and solve situational problems.

1. To hydrological hazardous phenomena applies:

a) flood;

c) earthquake;

d) avalanche.

2. Natural hazards include:

a) building collapse;

b) dam failure;

c) earthquake;

d) explosion in a mine.

3. Geological hazards include:

a) hurricane;

b) avalanche;

c) flood;

d) epidemic.

4. On the territory of the Russian Federation, about _______ emergencies occur annually as a result of hazardous natural phenomena.

a) 300; b) 1000; c) 100; d) 500.

5.* Marine hydrological hazards include:

a) typhoons;

b) tsunami;

c) floods;

d) tornado.

6.* Hydrological hazards include:

a) floods;

b) epidemics;

c) earthquakes;

d) floods.

7.* Natural hazards include:

a) dam failure;

b) peat fires;

c) floods;

d) collapse of buildings.

8.* Geological hazards include:

a) avalanches; c) tornadoes;

b) sat down; d) tsunami.

9.* Meteorological hazards include:

b) earthquakes;

c) tornadoes;

d) floods.

10. Changes occurring in nature as a result economic activity person are called:

a) natural;

b) anthropogenic;

c) natural;

d) environmental.

11. Natural emergencies in which harmful effects spread quickly include:

a) volcanic eruption;

b) epidemic;

d) flood.

12. Protection from natural hazards through the use of protective structures and various types of shelters is called:

a) in advance;

b) active;

c) planned;

d) passive.

13. Significant impact on the occurrence of natural emergencies in modern world has a ____________ factor.

a) anthropogenic; c) technogenic;

b) environmental; d) cosmic.

14. Protection from natural hazards by intervention in the mechanism of the phenomenon, construction of engineering structures, reconstruction natural objects, called:

a) mixed;

b) passive;

c) active;

d) promising.

15. Emergency situations of _______ origin are explosive and rapid in nature.

a) natural;

b) technogenic;

c) environmental;

d) biological.

16. Forest fires, fires of steppe and grain massifs, peat and underground fires of fossil fuels are included in the concept of “____________”.

a) natural fires;

b) man-made fires;

V) natural disasters;

d) emergency situations.

17. The source of an earthquake, located at a depth of 70 to 300 km, is called:

a) intermediate;

b) normal;

c) deep-focus;

d) small-focus.

18. A sudden flow of water from mountain rivers high level content (up to 75%) of stones, dirt, sand, soil is called:

a) an avalanche;

c) collapse;

d) landslide.

19. A telluric natural hazard is considered to be:

a) earthquake; c) volcanic eruption;

b) landslide; d) mudflow.

20. An ascending vortex in the form of a cloud arm or trunk, consisting of rapidly rotating air mixed with particles of moisture, sand, dust and other suspended matter, is called:

a) tornado;

b) hurricane;

c) storm;

d) tsunami.

21. A mass of snow falling from the slopes of mountains under the influence of gravity is called:

a) landslide;

b) an avalanche;

c) collapse;

22. A forest fire in which living ground cover, forest litter, dead litter, as well as coniferous growth and undergrowth burns, is called:

a) grassroots;

b) riding;

c) underground;

d) peat.

23. One of the signs of an approaching tsunami is:

a) strong wind from the ocean;

b) a sudden rapid withdrawal of water from the shore;

c) an unusually strong tide has begun;

d) prolonged rain with sudden gusts.

24. Meteorological hazards include:

a) hurricane;

b) tsunami;

c) avalanche;

d) flood.

25. Solid precipitation falling at negative air temperatures:

a) snow pellets;

b) hail;

c) freezing rain;

d) drizzle.

26. A forest fire that engulfs the ground cover, forest litter and tree canopy is called:

a) grassroots;

b) underground;

c) riding;

d) peat.

27. A tectonic dangerous natural phenomenon is considered to be:

a) earthquake;

b) volcanic eruption;

c) avalanche;

d) landslide.

28. Bacterial infectious diseases include:

a) salmonellosis;

c) candidiasis;

d) amoebiasis.

29. Forced self-evacuation during a flash flood must begin when the water:

a) reached the first floor of your building;

b) reached you and a threat to life appeared;

c) began to rise sharply;

d) flooded the basement of your house.

30. An area of ​​high pressure in the atmosphere with a maximum in the center is called:

a) anticyclone;

b) cyclone;

c) a tornado;

d) a storm.

31. A safe natural shelter outdoors during a hurricane can be:

a) a ravine or other depression in the ground;

b) a big tree;

c) high fence;

d) wall of the house.

32. An earthquake with an intensity of more than 11 points on the Richter scale is considered:

a) very strong;

b) moderate;

c) catastrophic;

d) devastating.

33. Earthquake energy, which is characterized by the amount of energy released at the source of the earthquake, is called:

a) amplitude;

c) power;

d) magnitude.

34. Towards topological lithospheric dangers natural phenomena relate:

a) landslides, mudflows;

b) cyclones, tornadoes;

c) earthquakes, droughts;

d) volcanic eruptions, tornadoes.

35. The speed of spread of a strong forest ground fire is over _______ m/min.

36. Solid precipitation, which most often falls at negative air temperatures in the form of snow crystals or flakes, is called:

a) snow;

b) rain;

c) hail;

d) drizzle.

37. A tornado (tornado) with a wind speed of 93 m/s causes ______ damage.

a) significant;

b) devastating;

c) average;

d) amazing.

38. The accumulation of ice in the riverbed, limiting the flow of the river at the end of winter and in the spring, resulting in the rise of water and its overflow, is called:

a) congestion;

b) flood;

c) flood;

d) glutton.

39. The average long-term water level in rivers, bays and at individual points of the sea coast is called:

a) upper pool;

b) pier;

c) ordinary;

d) supported by a pool.

40. Infectious diseases of the respiratory tract include:

b) whooping cough;

c) malaria;

d) cholera.

41. Heterotrophic organisms that cause different kinds mycoses are called:

a) bacteria;

b) protozoa;

d) mushrooms.

42. The movement of air relative to the Earth is called:

a) by the wind;

b) hurricane;

c) a squall;

43. The main methods of protecting the population from atmospheric hazards include:

a) correct installation of lightning rods;

b) introducing reagents into clouds using projectiles;

c) warning, shelter, evacuation;

44. The source of an earthquake located at a depth of more than 300 km is called:

a) deep focus;

b) normal;

c) small-focus;

d) intermediate.

45. As a result of heavy snowfalls, which can last from several hours to several days, the following occurs:

a) snow drift;

b) blizzard;

46. ​​Wind whose speed is 21-24 m/s is called:

b) strong wind;

c) a strong storm;

d) a complete storm.

47. When giving advance warning of an approaching tsunami, first of all, it is necessary:

b) open all windows and doors;

c) take all valuables to the top floor;

d) leave the populated area along the river bed.

48. Gravitational waves of very long length, resulting from the upward or downward shift of extended sections of the bottom during strong underwater earthquakes, less often during volcanic eruptions, are called:

a) typhoon; b) tornado; c) storm; d) tsunami.

49. An earthquake with an intensity of more than 8 points on the Richter scale is considered:

a) destructive;

b) quite strong;

c) catastrophic;

d) moderate.

50. The speed of spread of a strong crown forest fire is over ___ m/min.

a) 100; c) 30;

51. A tornado (tornado) with a wind speed of 18 m/s causes ______ damage.

a) significant;

b) weak;

c) average;

d) catastrophic.

52. The main methods of protecting the population from atmospheric hazards include (are):

a) warning, shelter, evacuation;

b) correct installation of lightning rods;

c) introducing reagents into clouds using projectiles;

d) planting forest shelterbelts.

53. Hydrological hazards include:

c) tornado;

d) flood.

54. An intense, relatively short-term and non-periodic rise in the water level in a river, caused by increased melting of snow, glaciers or an abundance of rain, is called:

a) mudslide; c) flood;

b) storm; d) tsunami.

55.* Vector-borne infections of animals include:

a) encephalomyelitis;

b) tularemia;

c) brucellosis;

d) rabies.

56. Intestinal infectious diseases include:

a) whooping cough;

c) cholera;

d) dysentery.

57. The source of an earthquake located at a depth of less than 70 km is called:

a) intermediate;

c) normal;

b) deep focus;

58. Wind whose speed is 24-28 m/s is called:

a) a complete storm;

b) a strong storm;

c) strong wind;

d) hurricane.

59. The destruction caused by a tornado is divided into _______ classes depending on the wind speed.

60. Marine hydrological hazards include:

a) avalanche;

b) earthquake;

c) hurricane;

d) tsunami.

61. The penetration of water into the basements of buildings through the sewer network is called:

a) flood;

b) flooding;

c) flood;

d) flooding.

62.* Nutritional infections of animals include:

a) parainfluenza;

c) brucellosis;

d) tularemia.

63. Infections that are transmitted by blood-sucking arthropods are called:

a) transmission; c) nutritional;

b) respiratory; d) contact.

64. An earthquake with an intensity of more than 9 points on the Richter scale is considered:

a) catastrophic;

b) devastating;

c) strong;

d) very strong.

65. A tornado (tornado) with a wind speed of 50 m/s causes ______ damage.

a) significant;

b) serious;

c) weak;

d) average.

66. The main cause of hurricanes, storms and tornadoes is:

a) changing solar Activity;

b) reduction of the ozone layer;

c) the phenomenon of global warming;

G) cyclical activity of the atmosphere.

67. The flood zone caused by the destruction of a hydraulic structure, where the height of the breakthrough wave is 1.5 m or less, and its speed is 1.5 m or less, is called the zone:

a) flood; c) floods;

b) flooding; d) flooding.

68. An advance hydrological forecast up to 10-12 days is called:

a) medium-term;

b) long-term;

c) short-term;

d) extra urgent.

69. Small pathogenic microorganisms ranging in size from 0.4 to 1.0 microns, reproducing only in living cells, causing typhus and Q fever in humans are called:

a) rickettsia;

b) fungi;

c) bacteria;

d) protozoa.

70. Viral diseases of people include:

a) tuberculosis, dysentery; c) encephalitis, hepatitis;

b) encephalopathy, pancreatitis; d) cirrhosis, colitis.

71. An earthquake with an intensity of 7 on the Richter scale is considered:

a) very strong;

b) moderate;

c) strong;

d) catastrophic.

72. A tornado (tornado) with a wind speed of 117 m/s causes ______ damage.

a) destructive;

b) incredible;

c) strong;

d) significant.

73. The best shelter from a tornado is:

c) multi-storey building;

d) basement.

74. When notified of approaching tsunami waves sea ​​vessels necessary:

a) go out to the open sea;

b) stand on the roadstead in the harbor;

c) anchor at the quay wall;

d) lower all anchors in the center of the port.

75. According to the epizootological classification, all infectious diseases of animals are divided into ___ groups.

76. The smallest non-cellular particles consisting of nucleic acid and protein shell measuring from 0.02 to 0.4 microns, causing smallpox and encephalitis in humans, are called:

a) protozoa; c) bacteria;

b) viruses; d) fungi.

77. The point on the earth’s surface located above the focus of the earthquake is called:

a) epicenter;

b) a fault;

c) meteorological center;

d) hypocenter.

78. A tornado (tornado) with a wind speed of 70 m/s causes ______ damage.

a) serious;

b) average;

c) devastating;

d) weak.

79. The damaging factor of biological weapons is:

a) pathogenicity;

b) receptivity;

c) stability;

d) reproduction.

80. Outstanding floods recur every ___ years.

81. Acute infectious diseases of people caused by bacterial infection include:

a) smallpox, rabies;

b) cirrhosis, colitis;

c) meningitis, dysentery;

d) pancreatitis, hepatitis;

82. The flood zone caused by the destruction of a hydraulic structure, where the height of the breakthrough wave is 4 m or more, and its speed is more than 2.5 m/s, is called the __________ flood zone.

a) extremely dangerous;

b) dangerous;

c) catastrophic;

d) moderate.

83. The main damaging factor of flooding is:

a) soil subsidence;

b) wind surge;

c) flooding of the area;

d) water flow.

84. When biological weapons are used, ________ biological lesions are formed.

a) territories;

c) water areas;

d) plots.

85. The minimum height of a breakthrough wave and its speed at which destruction of buildings and structures is possible are respectively:

a) 1.5 m and 1.5 m/s;

c) 3.5 m and 3.5 m/s;

b) 2.5 m and 2.5 m/s;

d) 2.0 m and 2.0 m/s.

86. The system of anti-epidemic measures aimed at completely isolating the source of infection and eliminating the infectious disease is called(s):

a) observation;

b) quarantine;

c) sanitary measures;

d) preventive measures.

87. A scientifically based prediction of the development of floods, their nature and scale is called a _________ forecast.

a) hydrological;

b) meteorological;

c) seasonal;

d) territorial.

88. Solve the crossword puzzle “Natural emergencies”:

Vertically:

1. A periodically repeated rather long rise in water levels in rivers, usually caused by spring melting of snow on the plains or rainfall.

3. Strong electrical discharges from lightning.

4. Snow is transported by strong winds over the surface of the earth.

7. The place where magma breaks out to the surface.

8. A violent atmospheric vortex that arises in a thundercloud and spreads across the surface of the earth (water) in the form of a dark giant “trunk” sleeve.

9. A tree under which it is dangerous to hide in a thunderstorm.

10. Special sea waves of very long length and height.

13. Sliding displacement of masses of rock (or other) rocks down a slope under the influence of gravity.

14. Blizzard with howling wind and blinding snow.

Horizontally:

2. An intense, relatively short-term rise in the water level in the river, caused by heavy rains, downpours, and sometimes rapid melting of snow during thaws.

5. Erupted magma that has lost some of the gases and water vapor it contains.

6. Cluster loose ice during freeze-up (at the beginning of winter) in narrowings and bends of the river bed, causing water to rise in some areas above it.

10. Atmospheric disturbance, circular vortex movement of air with low pressure in the center.

11. Pile of ice floes during the spring ice drift in narrowings and bends of the river bed, restricting the flow and causing a rise in the water level in the place of ice accumulation and above it.

12. Tremors, impacts and vibrations of the Earth's surface caused by natural processes occurring in the earth's crust.

15. Wind, the speed of which is more than 32 m/s.

16. A rapid, stormy stream of water with a large content of stones, sand, and clay.

17. A mass of snow moving under the influence of gravity and falling down a mountain slope.

18. A rise in water level caused by the influence of wind on the water surface, which occurs in sea mouths large rivers, as well as on the windward shores of large lakes, reservoirs and seas.

19. Atmospheric disturbance, circular vortex movement of air with increased pressure in the center.

20. Rapid separation (separation) and fall of a mass of rocks (earth, sand, stones, clay) on a steep slope due to loss of slope stability, weakening of connectivity, integrity of rocks.

89. The figure shows a diagram of the relationship between the hypocenter and epicenter of an earthquake, the direction of propagation of seismic waves. Indicate under what letters the hypocenter and epicenter are represented:

As a result of an accident on a heating main in winter (air temperature -25 0 C) without hot water and heating, 2 residential buildings remained, in which about 100 people lived. It was not possible to eliminate the accident quickly; the houses were unfrozen. It took 4 days to restore the heating network. Some of the residents moved in with relatives, some moved into the school building, and some remained in their apartments. There was material damage to citizens' property, but there were no casualties.

An earthquake measuring 8.1 on the Richter scale occurred in Indian Ocean north of the island of Simelue, north of Sumatra in Indonesia, at a depth of 30 km. The tsunami caused by the earthquake was one of the strongest in history. It hit the coasts of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, South India, Thailand and some other countries and islands. The height of the waves reached 30 m. It took the waves from several minutes to seven hours to reach the shores of various territories.

The United States Geological Survey published the actual number of victims and the extent of destruction. According to these data, the tsunami killed 283,100 people, left 14,100 missing and left a million more homeless. In February 2005, the ocean washed up 500 bodies every day. According to non-governmental organizations, identification parades were to continue throughout 2005 and into early 2006.

The socio-economic condition of the region immediately deteriorated.

The country was engulfed by famine and disease (cholera, typhus and dysentery). It is not unreasonable to assume that another 300,000 people died in the year following the tsunami.

According to scientific data, main reason Such catastrophic consequences are the destruction by humans of coral reefs and the structure of coastal areas.

What is a fire?

A) chemical reaction oxidation, accompanied by glow and release large quantity heat;

b) uncontrolled, spontaneously developing combustion, causing material damage, harm to human life and health;

c) a special case of combustion, occurring instantly, with a short-term release of a significant amount of heat and light;

d) ignition of flammable materials.

civil defense

For each question, select only one answer that you consider the most complete and correct, or several answers if the question is marked (*).

1. B market economy The basis of state finances are taxes, which make up _______ of the budget.

2. Civil defense is:

a) a system of measures to prepare and protect the population and values ​​on the territory of the Russian Federation from dangers arising during the conduct of military operations or as a result of these actions, as well as for protection from peacetime emergencies;

b) a set of measures to prepare for actions to protect the population and territory in the event of emergencies arising during military operations or as a result of these actions;

c) the forces and means of the Russian Federation intended to protect the population and values ​​from the danger of armed conflicts or as a result of these conflicts;

d) a system of measures to predict, prevent and eliminate emergencies in wartime.

a) economic, food, international;

b) social, environmental, informational;

c) economic, military, social and psychological;

d) economic, food, international, military, border, social, environmental, informational and psychological.

4. Provides the country’s development potential for a long historical period, as well as the stability and well-being of society - this is:

a) national security;

b) social security;

V) economic security;

d) psychological safety.

5. To organize and conduct evacuation of the population, the following are created:

a) family dormitories;

b) repair and restoration teams;

c) prefabricated evacuation points;

d) national teams.

6. The emergency commission at the university is headed by:

a) rector;

b) farm manager;

c)BZ course teacher;

d) physical education teacher.

a) the Constitution of the Russian Federation;

b) the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation;

c) National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation;

d) Labor Code of the Russian Federation.

8. The length of stay of the population in civil defense protective structures is determined:

a) the shelter duty officer;

b) the civil defense headquarters of the facility;

c) the head of the enterprise;

d) commandant of the shelter.

9.* In the student and staff protection plan educational institution in the event of a threat of emergency, the following are included:

a) evacuation from the threatened area to a safe zone;

b) organization of medical protection;

c) carrying out an emergency parent meeting;

d) use of means personal protection.

10. While at home, you suddenly hear intermittent beeps from enterprises and cars. Your actions:

a) immediately leave the premises and go down to the shelter;

b) close all windows and doors tightly;

c) immediately turn on the TV, radio and listen to the message;

d) go outside and find out what’s going on.

11. Emergency rescue and other emergency restoration work is carried out:

a) day and night in any weather;

b) only during the day in any weather;

c) continuously, day and night, in any weather until their completion;

d) continuously, day and night.

12.* The “Radiation Hazard” signal is given when:

a) beginning of work at a nuclear power plant;

b) the threat of the use of nuclear weapons;

c) threat of infection settlement toxic substances;

d) identifying the beginning of radioactive contamination of a given locality.

13. General guidance Civil Defense The Russian Federation carries out:

a) Government of the Russian Federation;

b) Ministry of Civil Defense Affairs;

c) Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia;

d) Emergency situations of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

14. Sirens and intermittent beeps of enterprises and Vehicle mean signal:

a) “Attention! Danger!";

b) “Attention everyone!”;

c) “Alarm!”;

d) “Save yourself who can.”

And collective defense

For each question, select only one answer that you consider the most complete and correct, or several answers if the question is marked (*). Indicate the name of the pictures and the meaning of the numbers.

1. In rooms adapted for shelters that are not equipped with running water and sewerage, containers with water are installed at the rate of __ liter(s) per person per day.

2. Indicate the name of the picture and the meaning of the numbers:

Drawing: ___________________________________

1. _____________________________________

2. _____________________________________

3. _____________________________________

4. _____________________________________

5. _____________________________________

6. A special structure designed to protect the population from all types of damaging weapons mass destruction and fires is called:

a) a bomb shelter;

b) anti-radiation shelter;

c) shelter;

d) protective cover.

7. Personal protective equipment includes:

a) gas masks;

c) shelters;

d) basements of houses.

8. Collective protection means include:

a) shelters;

b) respirators;

d) gas masks.

9. The removal of people taking refuge from the shelter (shelter) is carried out after receiving the signal:

a) chemical alarm clears;

b) air raid warning clear;

c) radiation hazard warning;

d) alarm cleared.

10. Protective structures with a capacity of 150 to 600 people are called:

a) small;

b) average;

c) optimal;

d) big.

11. Personal protective equipment for infants includes:

a) children's gas masks;

b) protective camera for children;

c) children's respirators;

d) children's protective suits.

12. Protective structures with a capacity of 600 to 2000 people are called:

a) average;

b) universal;

c) small;

d) big.

13.* Medical personal protective equipment includes:

a) AI-2; c) respirator “Lepestok-1”;

b) VMP; d) gas mask.

14. The capacity of protective structures is determined:

a) the amount of food;

b) the number of places for sitting and lying;

c) the number of people who want to save themselves;

d) the number of standing places.

15. Slots, trenches, pit-type structures belong to the _________ type of protective structures.

a) hermetically sealed;

b) basement;

c) open;

d) closed.

16. Respiratory protection, skin protection, and medical protection are means:

a) personal protection; c) collective defense;

b) medical protection; d) civil protection.

17. Special treatment of terrain, structures and technical means includes:

a) decontamination, degassing, deratization;

b) decontamination, decontamination, disinfection;

c) decontamination, degassing, disinfection, disinfestation, deratization;

d) decontamination, disinfection, deratization.

18. Gas masks are used to protect children’s respiratory organs:

a) PDF-D(2D), PDF-Sh(2Sh);

b) IP-4, IP-5(M);

c) IP-46, IP-46(M);

d) GP-5, GP-7.

19. Number of sizes of gas masks:

a) 5; b) 4; at 3; d) 6.

20. Children’s protective cameras KZD-4 and KZD-6 are the main means