The V International Archaeological School started in Bolgar. Some schools of archaeological theory School archeology

New program “School for Beginning Archaeologists” for children 9-12 years old. Classes are held in the form of a circle on Saturdays at 17.00, starting January 13, 2018. In addition to archaeology, classes are devoted to such historical disciplines as paleontology, paleography, numismatics, chronology, metrology, heraldry, etc. Topics such as methods of archaeological dating are discussed in detail , early forms of religion, etc.

Each lesson consists of theoretical and practical parts. Duration: 1 hour. 20min – 1h. 30min.

Cost: 450 rub. per person.
You can attend the entire course or specific topics separately.
Registration by phone is required. 8-495-692-00-20.

Lesson program for January-March 2018

January 13. Introductory lesson. Interaction of archeology with other sciences, similarities and differences in methods and approaches.

During the lesson, the conversation will focus on the place of archeology in the system of historical knowledge about the past of mankind, the features of archaeological sources and methods of studying them. Listeners will learn what sciences are hidden under the term “auxiliary historical disciplines”, will discuss what exactly they do and how they interact with archeology.

The practical part will enable participants to understand from their own experience why typology and classification are needed. It will be proposed to divide into groups such familiar objects as postage stamps, icons using various criteria (material, shape, image, etc.).

The lesson is devoted to very important concepts in archaeological science - chronology and dating. Students will learn what absolute and relative chronology is, how the calendar appeared, and how calendar systems differ among different nations.

The practical part will help consolidate the acquired knowledge. Participants will complete various tasks on distributing events and eras along the “timeline” and practice converting dates from one calendar to another.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Candidate of Historical Sciences Galina Leonardovna Novikova.

During the lesson, students will learn how archaeologists determine what time the things and buildings they find date back to, which methods are more accurate and how to apply them correctly.

The practical part will give participants the opportunity to try “selling” themselves. archaeological finds.

During the lesson, students will learn what the science of paleontology does, what it has in common with archeology and how they differ, what was on the site of Moscow 150 million years ago and how we find out about it. Let's study the fauna in detail Ice Age, including extinct animals that lived in our region tens of thousands of years ago. Participants will have to hold authentic paleontological finds in their hands and recreate the appearance of fossil animals on a computer.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Candidate of Historical Sciences Galina Leonardovna Novikova.

The lesson is dedicated to the origin and formation modern man(Homo sapiens) according to archeology and anthropology. Listeners will learn about the latest scientific discoveries in this area, and will get acquainted in detail with the method of M.M. Gerasimov on the sculptural reconstruction of portraits of people from bone remains and the works of his followers.

The practical part will help consolidate the acquired knowledge. Participants in game form will complete tasks to correlate different stages of human evolution and archaeological eras on the “timeline”.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the scientific and educational work sector of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Alexander Gennadievich Afanasyev.

During the lesson, the conversation will focus on when the first beginnings of religion arose and how they manifested themselves. Listeners will become familiar with such concepts as totemism, fetishism, animism and magic. Let's discuss how archeological and ethnographic data help to recreate the beliefs of ancient people, their customs and rituals.

The practical part will give participants the opportunity to come up with and try to make amulets-amulets from improvised materials.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Candidate of Historical Sciences Galina Leonardovna Novikova.

The lesson is dedicated to the history of the origin of mathematical knowledge in primitive people. Listeners will learn how and with what help ancient man carried out his calculations on how the first measures of length were born and what the special historical science of metrology can tell us about this.

Participants will have to put their acquired knowledge into practice by performing mathematical operations on the abacus and abacus, and also measure their weight and height in ancient Russian measures.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the scientific and educational work sector of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Alexander Gennadievich Afanasyev

The lesson is devoted to the science that studies the history of coinage and money circulation. Students will learn how numismatics helps archeology and how it differs from ordinary collecting. In addition, class participants will become familiar with previously existing monetary systems, options for making ancient coins, and will also be able to carefully examine some ancient samples and determine the time when the proposed treasure was hidden.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the scientific and educational work sector of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Alexander Gennadievich Afanasyev.

The lesson will allow participants to expand their knowledge and understanding of various banknotes and securities. Listeners will be told in detail about the features of the science of bonistics, its common features and differences with numismatics. The practical part will provide participants with the opportunity to study various banknotes in detail, evaluate the features of their production and the degree of protection.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the scientific and educational work sector of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Alexander Gennadievich Afanasyev.

During the lesson, students will learn how documents can be dated based on the style of writing letters, and will also become acquainted with the history of the development of writing, the medieval culture of drawing up acts and the history of office work. In the practical part, participants will try to determine the time of drawing up the document, using the acquired knowledge.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the exhibition work sector of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Maxim Vladimirovich Moiseev.

During the lesson, students will learn what it is funeral rite and what important role it plays in the culture of different peoples, what forms of burials and types of funerary monuments are known to archaeologists. Participants will become familiar with the methods of discovering and clearing ancient burials, the rules for recording finds in situ, and will hold in their hands authentic field documentation.

The practical part will give the children the opportunity to feel themselves “in the shoes” of an archaeologist: explore the “closed complex”, measure the depth of finds and the distance to them using a level, draw up an inventory of objects and fill out labels for them.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Candidate of Historical Sciences Galina Leonardovna Novikova.

During the lesson, the conversation will focus on how scientists manage to recreate women's and men's costumes of ancient eras based on scattered archaeological and historical data, what is the role of ethnography, experimental archeology and amateur reenactors in this matter. Program participants will visit the exhibition “The Beauty of Everyday Life” that has just opened at the Moscow Museum of Archeology and get acquainted with the new exhibits presented there.

At the end of the lesson, each student, based on the knowledge gained, will have to create their own colorful applique, reconstructing the festive women's dress of the 12th-13th centuries.

The lesson is conducted by the head of the Moscow Museum of Archeology, Candidate of Historical Sciences Galina Leonardovna Novikova.

Archaeological institutes and archaeological schools

The name "Archaeological Institute" belongs to institutions of two kinds: 1) a scientific society, which has the task of researching antiquities and disseminating information obtained about antiquities through various kinds of scientific publications, 2) a scientific and educational institution, which sets itself the goal of preparing knowledgeable archaeologists through teaching and various scientific works and archivists. An example of A.I. in its first meaning is A.I., which arose in 1829 in Berlin, officially called Institute for Archaeological Correspondence(Institut für archäologische Korrespondenz). It was formed under the patronage of the then Crown Prince (later King Frederick William IV) and under the direct supervision of the Duke of Blacas (Blacas) from Bunsen, Fea, Gerhard, Kestner, Welker and others in the form of a permanent establishment in Rome, which set itself the task of subjecting scientific analysis and the study of discoveries made in the field of archeology, especially the discovered monuments of Greek, Roman, Etruscan and ancient Italian times (prehistoric times and the Middle Ages are excluded from the task). To familiarize the public with these scientific works The Institute launched a monthly publication "Bulletino dell" Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica". More extensive works are published annually in "Anali dell instituto di correspondenza archeologica", with drawings attached. In addition, A.I. publishes the archaeological journal "Archäologische Zeitschrift" in Berlin During the winter months, I. holds weekly public meetings in which discussions are made in Italian, French and Latin languages abstracts about the most important archaeological discoveries. A.I.’s rather rich library was declared accessible to learned archaeologists of all nations. A.I. has 5 scholarships for training archaeologists. In 1871, AI was made a Prussian state institution; to house it, a large new building was built in Rome; central administration of 11 members, it operates in Berlin, and its two secretaries operate in Rome. In 1874, a similar German A.I. settled in Athens for the same study of Greek antiquities; its central headquarters is also in Berlin. Since 1876, this Institute has published its "Mitteilungen des deutschen Archäolog. Instituts in Athen" 4 times a year. The AI ​​formed in 1847 in Luxembourg has a slightly different meaning, since it set itself the task of researching all kinds of antiquities and publishing the data obtained about antiquities. In 1878, an index of extensive publications of this A.I. was published: "Institut archéologique du Luxembourg. Table générale des publications insérrées dans les Annales de l"Institut archéologique du Luxembourg depuis sa fondation en 1747 jusqu"a l"année 1877 inclusivement". Absolutely similar to him is A. I. in Lüttich, who has already published 19 volumes. A list of his important publications is in the major bibliography of De Theux: “Bibliographie liégeoise” (2nd ed., 1885, in 4 °). And in this first meaning are all archaeological societies (see this next), and in Belgium - “Académie d” archéologie de Belgique” [Index of the first 20 volumes found. from Louis Torfs, who published the Table des matières, ed. this academy (Asnieres, 1867)]. In the same meaning Arch. The institutes operate in the French "Ecole de Rome", "Ecole d"Athenes", "Ecole du Louvre" in (Paris) and "Institut Egyptien du Caïre".

Another meaning of Arch. The Institute as an archaeological school is represented by institutions bearing very different names. So, in France, the meaning of A.I. in this sense is the famous

Parisian "Ecole des Chartes" was created in 1821 according to the plan of the famous publicist de Gérando. Initially, in 1806, he presented to Napoleon I a much broader plan for such an Institute, but this plan did not come to fruition, and only in 1821 was a royal order (Louis XVIII) on the establishment of the "Ecole des Chartes" for the training of archivists. For the first time, there were supposed to be 12 listeners, the selection of whom was entrusted to the “Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres”. The first professors were very knowledgeable people: Abbot Lepine, who had been in charge of the manuscript department in the Royal Library for 20 years, and M. Pavillet, head of the historical section of the royal archives. The school was very unsuccessfully divided into 2 departments: one of 6 students preparing for libraries, the other also of 6 students preparing for archives. The students were entitled to content, and in 1823 it was determined that the course should last two years. But a year later, the content for the students was stopped, the school began to decline, and teaching fell silent for five years. The plan proposed in 1828 for the resurrection of the Ecole des Chartes, although approved by the king, did not materialize, and a new era for this school began with the activity of Guizot as Minister of the Interior, although short-lived, but sufficient to stage the Ecole des Chartes" on proper ground. He immediately destroys the duality of the school, concentrating all teaching in one school at the public library; he entrusts the elementary course to Lepin, and invites M. Champollion-Figeac, experienced in archival affairs, to the department of diplomacy and paleography. Abbot Lepine soon died (1831), and in his place the head of the elementary course was made by M. Guerard, a pupil of this school, who completed the course there in 1822. Under the influence of Guizot, the entire structure of the school changed; in 1839, her former students (48 of them were released before 1839) merged into one scientific whole with her real students, forming "Société de l"Ecole royale des Chartes", whose bureau was made up of professors of the school and members of the commission that managed it. This society began to publish the "Bibliothèque de l"Ecole des Chartes", the first volume of which was published in 1839, and then the publication continues constantly: in 1889 the L-th volumes of this great collection began historical documents, processed by members of this society, listeners of the "Ecole des Chartes". Guerard, who became the director of the school, successfully led the development of the school: the composition of professors began to increase, 8 students were awarded scholarships of 600 francs from the government. Entry into the school is conditional on having previously received a bachelier èslettres degree (corresponding to our former scientific degree candidate of history and philology. faculty); The course is designed for three years, and tests are carried out annually. By the end of the forties, the rise of the school was noted by competent persons, and when the central management of all departmental archives was formed in the Ministry of Internal Affairs (1850), then by decree of February 4. 1850 a very important privilege "Ecole des Chartes" was declared: only those who completed a course in the "Ecole des Chartes" (with the title archivist-paléographe), and only in case of a lack of such - outsiders, according to special exam. This privilege, as well as the beginnings carried out by the director of this school, Guérard (he remained director until his death, until 1852; his place was taken first by Nathalie de Vally, and from 1868 by Lacoban), gave the school special outstanding significance in the last thirty years. By the way, her pupils took an active part in the reorganization (since 1850) of the entire archival affairs of France, and the scientific historical society (Société de l'Ecole des Chartes), which arose in 1839 in close connection with it, constantly expanding its activities, acquired importance national institution. The development of this institution forced the entire French society to pay attention to the Ecole des Chartes. Donations flowed into her, especially books and manuscripts, and she now owns her own rather rich library. Using state premises in this huge castle of archives, burying itself in archival materials, having a significant annual budget, enjoying everyone’s attention and respect, the “Ecole des chartes” can be revered as an exemplary archaeological institute in this second meaning. See Vallet de Viriville (M. Vallet de Viriville), "l" Ecole des Chartes, son passé, son état présent, son avenir" (Par., 1867); I. E. Andreevsky, "On the Paris Ecole des Chartes" ("Observer", 1889, No. 2).

This goal of training competent archivists, for the achievement of which the Ecole des Chartes was created in France, is sought to be achieved in Germany and Italy by other means - special specialized teaching in the archives. Yes, when central state archive Bavaria postgraduate students are admitted who have passed the state exam in legal sciences or in history and antiquities and who wish to prepare at the archive for a special test for the position of archivist (this test is carried out in the presence of the director of the archive). Such graduate students receive from the treasury an allowance of 500 to 600 florins per year, and for them, at the archives, lectures are given on paleography, on the science of archives, on the history of law, on historical sources, and practical exercises are given on compiling inventories and registers. These lectures at the archive became closely connected with lectures at the University of Munich.

At Neapolitan, Milan and Venice The same schools operate in the archives. The school at the Venice Archives (since 1854) operates especially successfully. The teaching is distributed over two courses. Until 1863-1864 academic year the teaching was limited to paleography and general history, and from this year special teaching of Venetian history has been introduced. The school owns a rich collection of educational manuscripts, enlarged photographically. There are an average of 15 students.

In Russia, to achieve this goal - training competent archivists - there is Archaeological Institute in St. Petersburg, now under the patronage E.I.V. Sovereign Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich , established in 1877 by N.V. Kalachov (see this next). Having devoted his entire life to serving science - the history of Russian law and archival affairs - Kalachov began to cherish the idea of ​​​​creating an institute in Russia that could serve the same service as the Ecole des Chartes served France. At the Second Archaeological Congress in St. Petersburg (1871), he read an article in which he presented the bleak situation of Russian archives, which aroused active participation among the members of the congress on the issue of improving archival affairs in Russia; The congress submitted a petition to the government to establish a temporary commission consisting of representatives of various departments so that, after discussing all issues regarding the organization of archives and the storage of documents in them, they would draw up regulations on the main archival commission as a government institution and on its relationship to the archives of various departments. The petition of the congress was respected: the proposal of the Minister of Public Education was highly approved on February 3, 1873. Under the chairmanship of N.V. Kalachov, a temporary commission was formed to organize archives. This commission, which operated until Kalachov’s death (October 25, 1885), by the way, dwelled on the question of the need to educate archivists in our country and believed that two institutions were urgently needed, one of which would train specialists, and the other would have in its hands the central administration of all archival affairs in the department of the Ministry of Public Education. In view of this, the commission drew up a project for a government archaeological institute corresponding to the French "Ecole des Chartes". But since the whole project, which required significant expenses, could not be realized soon, and Kalachov was eager to deliver his idea quickly, he decided to create an Archaeological Institute with private funds, hoping to find donors. The plan he created was approved by the Committee of Ministers, and on July 23, 1877, the regulations on the Institute were approved, initially in the form of a 4-year experiment. On January 15, 1878, the grand opening of A.I. followed, which aroused great sympathy and financial donations, which at first gave the Institute the opportunity not only to open teaching, but also to publish its works. Since 1886, the government has assigned an annual subsidy of 6 thousand rubles. A.I. is a scientific and educational institution, part of the department of the Ministry of Public Education, entrusted to a special director. determined and dismissed by the highest orders of the minister. adv. education (the first director until his death was the founder of the Institute, Senator Kalachov). Professors and teachers are appointed, on the proposal of the director, by the Minister of People's Affairs. enlightenment. The management of pedagogical affairs is entrusted to the council, and economic affairs - to the board. The Institute may also have honorary members from persons who provide moral services to the Institute or contribute 500 rubles annually to it (honorary members are assigned a rank and, while they hold this title, V class by position and V-th category according to the uniform of the department of the Ministry of Peoples. enlightenment). The goal of A.I. is to prepare specialists in Russian antiquity to occupy places in government, public and private archives. Only persons who have completed a course of science at higher education institutions are admitted to A.I. educational institutions; those who do not have such diplomas are admitted as free or outside listeners. The course of study is free and limited to two years. Those who have completed the two-year course are subject to tests and, if successful, receive certificates and are made full members Institute, and outside listeners, after passing the test, receive certificates and become corresponding members. The following sciences are taught at the A. Institute: 1) The science of archives, with practical classes on analyzing the archive, compiling card inventory, registers, etc., 2) General and especially Russian paleography, with practical classes on reading ancient acts, 3 ) Numismatics, 4) Metrology, 5) General archeology - ancient eastern, 6) Legal antiquities, 7) Church antiquities. - The Institute has a fairly rich library and museum. In addition to lectures taught daily from 10-12 hours. mornings, the Institute has special evening classes (weekly) for the examination of historical and archaeological works. societies, critical examination of new writings, conversations on issues of archeology and history, etc. and monthly public meetings in which abstracts are read and conversations open. The Institute publishes its own organ, initially published under the name "Collection of Arch. Inst.", and now under the name "Bulletin of Archeology and History"(VII issue ed. 1888). The close connection that has been created between former students of the Institute, its full members, general work, called strictly scientific interests, and the established simplicity of relations between its figures acquired universal respect for this brainchild of Kalachov. Having very insufficient funds, without providing any benefits or material benefits to his pets, A.I. does not become scarce in the number of listeners: there are up to 30 or even more of them every year. See I. E. Andreevsky, “Decade of the Archaeological Institute” (published in “Russian Antiquity”, 1888); Popovsky, "L"Institut Archéologique de Saint-Pétersbourg" (item in "Bulletin de l"Institut archéologique liégeois", vol. XVI, 1882).

Encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - S.-Pb.: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907 .

Already in the period between the First and Second World Wars, the main directions or schools of biblical archaeological research were formed, which manifested themselves quite clearly in the second half of the 20th century.

European school

Unlike the German and French schools, which experienced some decline at this time, it retained its importance English school biblical and archaeological research. Since 1937, it has published the journal “Biblical Archaeologist”, and individual scientists have been excavating Jerusalem. A representative of exactly this scientific direction there was Kathleen Kenyon, who excavated Jericho and Jerusalem using a new method named after her. Kenyon conducted excavations in Jerusalem on the Ophel Hill from 1961 to 1967 and achieved significant results. She dug a deep trench along the eastern slope of the City of David, on the basis of which she made the first general description all cultural layers of Jerusalem. She located Jebus and found the city wall of David's time (at the bottom of the hill, closer to the source of Tikhon than previously thought).

In the 1960-1980s, interest in issues of biblical archeology returned in Germany, but at the level of demarcation between secular researchers of the ancient East and representatives of biblical archeology.

American school

It was formed at the beginning of the 20th century under the strong influence of American Protestantism and initially set the goal of collecting archaeological information confirming the Bible. American biblical archeology existed in parallel with secular archaeology.

American Schools Established 1900 oriental studies(ASOR) carried out their activities in line with biblical studies. This was greatly facilitated by the fact that the schools were headed by the aforementioned V. Albright for many years. Under him, the magazine (“Bulletin of the ASOR”) and the yearbook (“Annual of the ASOR”) of schools (published since 1921) became the most important periodicals in Biblical Archaeology. In addition to the school in Philadelphia, three more schools were founded: in Jerusalem - for the study of Palestine, in Baghdad - for the study of Mesopotamia (closed in 1991 due to the war in Kuwait), and in Cyprus - for the study of Asia Minor and adjacent territories .

Scientists from the American University of Beirut are also involved in archaeological research in the Middle East. They operate on the principle of regional archeology and study all the monuments of Lebanon from the Stone Age to the period of the Arab conquest.

American biblical archaeologists paid special attention to a topic long developed by W. Albright - archaeological confirmation of the conquest of Palestine by the Israelites during the time of Joshua and during the period of the Judges, both Palestinian and other Middle Eastern monuments.

The American school of biblical archeology had two further features. The first is the development of New Testament archeology, continuing the traditions of the Catholic abbot F. Vigouroux, but based on the Protestant understanding of the history of the New Testament. The second is to popularize your achievements.

One of the first American archaeologists who did not disdain the popularization of his works was Samuel Kramer. He was a Hebraist, Egyptologist, Assyriologist and Sumerologist, and wrote more than two hundred works, including twenty-seven monographs. In 1956, he published the book “History Begins in Sumer,” which was later published in many countries, including the USSR, in which he outlined the history of Sumer at a good scientific level, but at the same time in accessible language.

Like S. Kramer, many American scientists published popular books in which they summarized and analyzed the results of archaeological research of ancient peoples, thereby fueling public interest in their research.

The consequence of such a purposeful policy of American biblical archaeologists was the discovery in 1930-1950. in many US universities departments of archeology of the Middle East.

Israeli school

Israeli archeology as such began to take shape in the 20-30s. XX century, when people began to come to the Holy Land from different countries In Europe, Jewish researchers wanted not only to collect material about the distant past of their people, but also to substantiate their rights to this land. Thus, recalling the 1936 excavations in Bet Sherim, B. Mazar said: “Everyone was deeply interested in the excavations, since the discovery of Jewish ancient monuments strengthened the significance of Zionism and reinforced the grounds for the creation of the Jewish state. We were interested in creating our homeland, and Jewish antiquities were part of its foundation.” A similar approach to the goals of archaeological research is characteristic of modern Israeli scientists.

One of the first Israeli archaeologists was N. Avigad. In 1960-1970 he carried out excavations in the center of the Jewish quarter of the old city in Jerusalem. He discovered many artifacts from the Hasmonean period and even more from the time of Herod the Great, indicating that at that time the nobility of Jerusalem lived in extraordinary luxury. He also discovered that by the time of the Babylonian conquest, Jerusalem was four times the size of the city of Solomon's time and, therefore, its inhabitants in the 8th-7th centuries. BC constituted the vast majority of urban residents of Judea.

A contemporary of Avigad, E. L. Sukenik, was engaged in excavations of various sites in Palestine, including Jerusalem, before the Second World War. After the war he became known as the first manuscript scholar Dead Sea. In fact, he not only founded the school of Israeli Qumran studies; his views influenced all Qumran scholars until the end of the 20th century.

Among the researchers of Jerusalem, Y. Shiloh should be especially noted. In Jerusalem, he continued K. Kenyon's excavations in the City of David and established that a settlement in this place had existed since the 4th millennium BC. - i.e., Jerusalem is one of the oldest cities in the world. J. Shilo also studied three complex systems water supplies of ancient Jerusalem, which, as it turned out, were connected with the source of Gion.

The archeology of biblical countries has caused a lot of controversy throughout the study of this science, and the debate is still ongoing. Many directions, their own schools, are a vivid example of this.

The opening of the V International Archaeological School, which will be held on the basis of the Bulgarian Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve, took place on August 21. The organizers of the school, held with the support of the History of the Fatherland Foundation, are Kazansky federal university and Institute of Archeology named after. A.H. Khalikova Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan.

In 2018, 102 people will take part in the school. Among them are more than 50 students from 16 countries - the USA, Great Britain, Egypt, India, Turkey, Belarus, Algeria, the Philippines, Poland, Estonia, Pakistan, Croatia, Germany, Sweden, Romania, Russia, as well as 16 teachers from the USA and Canada , Spain, Philippines, Bulgaria, Romania and Russia. In addition, volunteers take part in organizing the school.

The main goal of the school is the consolidation of domestic and foreign scientific and educational resources to introduce the latest achievements of world science into the practice of studying and preserving historical cultural heritage peoples of Eurasia. The school is focused on the needs of young scientists in getting acquainted with new methods, presenting current data and collaboration. At the school site, participants have the opportunity to present their unique creative projects, discuss them, get expert assessment.

« The International Archaeological School in Bolgar plays a very important role in the development of specialists not only in Russian Federation, CIS countries, but also throughout the world. It is a platform on which students and teachers from various countries traditionally interact - in just five years of activity of the International Archaeological School, representatives of 26 countries of the world took part in it - designated by the head of the school, director High school historical sciences and world cultural heritage KFU Airat Sitdikov. - The school has created conditions for acquiring knowledge from specialists in a practical environment and, importantly, directly at the World Cultural Heritage Site - the Bulgarian Historical and Archaeological Complex. It is also important that both classes and communication on the school site take place in a bilingual format, and therefore there is an opportunity not only to gain specialized knowledge, but also to practice communicating in foreign language. In addition, the school contributes to building interethnic professional contacts both among young scientists and their connections with leading world experts in a particular field».

The school program changes its format from year to year, remaining interesting for those beginning specialists who have already taken part in it - in total, scientists from KFU and the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan have developed 12 diverse educational courses, from which the general plan through alternating courses. Thus, in 2018, the work of the school will be organized within the framework of four scientific and educational practice-oriented programs: geoarchaeology, archaeological textiles: restoration, conservation, reconstruction, experimental and traceological studies of ancient tools made from non-silicon raw materials (bone, horn, stone, metal) , paleoanthropology.

Yes, direction "Archaeological textiles and leather: restoration, conservation, reconstruction" designed for students, undergraduates, graduate students and young specialists in the field of archaeology. It is impossible to imagine any culture without people, it is impossible to imagine people without a suit, it is impossible to imagine a suit without clothes, and to imagine clothes, you need to know everything about fabrics and leather that archaeological finds can give. But it’s not enough to find, you need to be able to save and “read” all the information embedded in these artifacts. The direction includes a separate module of training in methods of research, field fixation, conservation, restoration and reconstruction of archaeological textiles and leather.

In turn, the direction “Experimental and traceological studies of ancient tools made from non-silicon raw materials (bone, horn, stone, metal)” is focused on expanding students’ theoretical and practical knowledge, skills and abilities to work with various artifacts from non-silicon raw materials within the framework of research and scientific-practical projects of various nature. The lecture course is dedicated to modern problems functional definition and reconstruction of technologies for manufacturing tools from non-silicon raw materials. Practical exercises include modeling of ancient technologies and experimental and traceological analysis of various tools.

And the direction "Paleoanthropology" aimed at expanding the theoretical and practical knowledge of students, skills and abilities to work with paleoanthropological material. The lecture module is devoted to modern problems of physical anthropology. Practical modules cover the basics of working with the human skull, teeth and postcranial skeleton. Curriculum The direction also includes a separate module for training in methods of field recording, conservation and restoration of paleoanthropological materials. The final training block is devoted to a description of pathological changes in the teeth, skull bones and postcranial skeleton.

And finally "Geoarchaeology" unites a wide range of areas of modern archaeological research using approaches and developments of natural science disciplines - geography, geology, botany, geoinformatics, etc. During the work, participants are expected to familiarize themselves with both field and laboratory methods geoarchaeological research. Students, together with teachers, will conduct aerial photography of terrain using UAVs, field work on stratigraphic sections, selection and preliminary processing of samples to obtain chronological and paleoecological data. Laboratory work Students are expected to acquire basic skills in conducting spore-pollen and phytolith analyses, photogrammetric processing of photographic data to obtain three-dimensional terrain models, and the use of GIS for spatial data analysis.

Along with scientific and practical work within the framework of laboratories in the areas, the school program involves conducting general course lectures on the theory and methodology of preserving and studying historical and cultural heritage, as well as modern technologies field research.

School participants also have the opportunity to conduct research projects at specialized sites of the school under the guidance of leading Russian and foreign teachers, and also publish the results of their research in the collection of materials of the International Archaeological School, which is included in the RSCI. Upon completion of training, all students receive a certificate of advanced training.

In conclusion, it is worth noting that the experience of organizing an international archaeological school in Tatarstan interested the leadership of UNESCO. According to UNESCO Director General Irina Bokova, who visited the school in 2017, this form of intensive training in continuous interaction with leading experts in the field of archeology and restoration directly at the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site is one of the most effective implemented in the world.

Some schools archaeological theory

It can be said that, to some extent, the approaches to interpreting the past just discussed remain with us today. Instead of replacing each other, they continue to exist - there are a myriad of theoretical approaches in archeology today. Cultural-historical, procedural, and post-processual archeology can be seen as fundamental, overarching paradigms about how the past should be conceptualized, how archaeological data should be assessed, and what the goals of archaeological research should be. It would be wrong to consider clearly demarcated schools, since almost each of them often takes something from the other (discussion fundamental differences for new explanatory paradigms, see Bintcliff 1991, 1993.)

To explain past cultures, scientists draw on many other theories and concepts to conceptualize their work and model social, political, and cultural systems. Many of these theories relate to philosophy and cultural anthropology, but sociology, political science, evolutionary biology and even literary criticism. These changing perspectives help archaeologists conceptualize and model past social systems. Although some of them may be better suited to processual and post-processual views of the past, none of them can be easily broken down into parts. For example, procedural archeology may be more concerned with human adaptation to the environment, and the interpretation of ideologies, religions and worldviews in the past are the main issues cognitive-process approach(Flannery and Marcus - Flannery and Marcus, 1993). And the issue of gender has been the focus of both processual and post-processual archeology (Hays-Gilpin and Whitley, 1998). There are many theoretical approaches to archeology, among them the following can be distinguished.

Evolutionary approaches have been an integral part of archeology since the 19th century. While the theory of unilinear evolution of human societies has been abandoned (Chapter 2), the concept of multilinear cultural evolution has many connections with modern archaeological research. It is useful in conceptualizing changes in past societies (see, in particular, Earle, 1997).

Some scientists follow ideas of evolutionary processes when considering social, cultural and environmental adaptation. Archaeologists who hold these beliefs believe that natural selection limits human thought and action. Therefore, the way people behaved can be understood by understanding the limitations that have been placed on the human mind during its long evolution. In this view, natural selection produced a culture by “bestowing” reproductive advantages on its bearers. Thus, thought and action were directed by natural selection through different channels that were adaptive for the emergence Homo sapiens. The essence natural selection is that a person thinks and acts in a certain way, and not in another. The result was a tendency towards conformity in thought and action among diverse communities with very different institutions and beliefs.

Ecological approaches special attention is paid to the study of ancient communities in natural environment habitat. As we saw when discussing the ecology of culture, the theory of cultural change as a process of adaptation to the environment arose in the middle of the 20th century and played an important role in the emergence of processual archeology, which initially viewed culture as extrasomatic adaptation to the external environment (Crumley, 1994).

Marxist views, developed from the work of Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, have a long and powerful influence on archaeological theories. Classical Marxist views especially emphasize the contradictions between economic relations(especially between production and exchange), class contradictions and inequality as driving force sociocultural evolution. Marx and Engels considered as the main one the unilinear evolutionary model put forward by Lewis Henry Morgan (Chapter 2) in relation to the evolution of ancient societies. In their own works, they developed in detail the theory of the evolution of capitalism, socialism and communism. Marxist views significantly influenced W. Gordon Child, especially those aspects that affected changes in society during the transition to agriculture and the complication of the sociopolitical structure, on his understanding of changes in the social structure (Trigger, 1980).

Some researchers have turned to Marxism to frame their discussions and develop concepts. Many theories have been put forward by Marxist scholars such as Antonio Gramsci, Henri Lefebvre and Claude Melasso (McGuire, 1992). Dialectical Marxism, for example, emphasizes an understanding of the interconnected relationships of phenomena within society. Consequently, existence, gender, class and race are seen as integral parts of the whole social system, rather than as independent constructs. Marxist theories and analytical concepts have been very important to historical archaeologists studying the archeology of capitalism and European expansion into the non-Western world (M. Johnson, 1993; Orser, 1966). Another part of Marxist archeology focuses on the contemporary contexts in which archaeologists operate and is part of critical archaeology.

Critical archeology believes that since archaeologists are actors in modern culture, then they must actively influence society (Shanks and Tilley, 1987a, 1987b). One extreme is the Marxist view of archeology, according to which all knowledge is class-based and therefore archeology shapes history for class purposes (McGuire, 1992). Thus, reconstructions of the past have social function, and therefore archeology cannot be a neutral, objective science. By turning to critical analysis, archeology can examine the relationship between the reconstruction of the past and the ideology that helped create that reconstruction.

Critical archeology is the process by which archaeologists become more critical of their own place in the evolving Western school of thought (Trigger, 1984, 1989). Much of critical archeology focuses on understanding. In other words, we should be concerned about the cultural roots of our work.

Cultural materialism grew out of Marxist views, but it emphasizes the role of existence and the technology of existence as the main source of sociocultural phenomena. At the core of all sociocultural phenomena is infrastructure, which includes livelihoods and basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter. These phenomena exert selective pressure on other elements of society, including family structure, division of labor, class, religion, science, customs and ideologies (M. Harris, 1968, 1979, 1999). Although others cultural phenomena may influence cultural evolution, infrastructural factors are seen here as much more important.

Cultural materialism is particularly attractive to archaeologists because it emphasizes the importance of technology and environment, precisely those aspects of past communities that are well preserved in the archaeological material and subject to evaluation.

World systems theory, developed by sociologist Emmanuel Wallerstein (1974, 1979, 1980), argues that socioeconomic differences between communities are the product of an interdependent world economy. All communities are placed into three general categories: core communities are powerful industrial nations that dominate other regions and nations; semi-peripheral communities are also industrialized, but they do not have the power of the former; peripheral societies are outside the core and cannot in any way control the economic expansion of the core. The relationship between developed and developing countries in the modern world is examined here in the light of core-peripheral relations.

Not surprisingly, world systems theory has provided an important model for historical archaeologists studying the intersection of Europe with the rest of the world (DeCorse, 2001a, 2001b). Although archaeologists studying pre-capitalist societies have found many useful concepts when considering relationships in older and smaller "world systems", for example, sociopolitical complications in Mesopotamia and Central America(Chase-Dunn and Hall, 1991).

From an archaeological point of view, the term cognitive archeology covers a wide range of human behavior patterns, especially religion and beliefs, and the development and expression of human consciousness. It is sometimes called the archeology of the mind.

Some archaeologists take a cognitive-process approach with a fundamentally new framework in order to bring old and new models and methods closer together. This approach emphasizes the careful evaluation of data that characterizes processual archaeology. "Cognitive Processualists" will never claim to know what people in the past thought, but they can gain insight into How they thought (Renfrew, 1993a, 1993b; Scibo and others, 1995).

Structural approaches view human cultures as structures of symbols that are the cumulative creations of the human mind. In other words, people think and organize their worlds through “basic, powerful, and flexible symbols” (Leone and others, 1987). Purpose structural analysis is the discovery of these universal principles of the human mind. A similar approach is associated, in particular, with the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. These are attempts to get to the conscious and subconscious thinking of a person. Levi-Strauss argued that thinking is based on binary opposites (1966), that is, we divide everything into opposite types - hot and cold, raw and cooked, nature and culture. Such binary opposites are found in any society and can be identified through analysis.

The cognitive-non-materialist nature of structuralism makes it difficult to apply when considering the material, and therefore structuralism has limited applicability. However, some post-processualists are less concerned with cultural universals and more concerned with the cognitive structures in individual societies (Kirch and Sahlins 1992). Archaeologist Ian Hodder studied the Nubian farmers of Sudan and showed that all aspects of their material culture, including funeral customs, settlement patterns, and artefact styles, can be understood in the context of a set of rules that perpetuated their belief in “purity, parochialism, categorization.” Thus, Nubian society is the result of structured, symbolized behavior and has a fundamental practicality. But it also has its own logic, which generated the material culture that archaeologists study.

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