In what year did the First World War end? Events of the First World War. Actions in the North Sea and English Channel

How was the First World War(1914 – 1918): reasons, stages, results briefly. The years of the war, its beginning and end, the entire chronicle of events and who won and won. Let's look at the file of losses, how many died and what losses each country suffered. The table of calculations will help you understand the details and see full picture. You will also find out which were the most famous heroes in Russia and their exploits.

The First World War began on August 1, 1914, and ended on November 11, 1918. During this period, 38 states took part in hostilities, which means that 62% of the world's population were at war at the same time.

The First World War is one of those wars that historians call ambiguous and extremely controversial. One of the reasons for the war was the overthrow of the autocracy in Russia, which the opponents managed to achieve. The Balkan countries played the most significant role in the course of events, but their decisions and actions were directly influenced by England. So, it was impossible to call these countries independent. Germany also had some influence (in particular on Bulgaria), but it quickly lost its authority in the region.

Who with whom?

Two groups of countries took part in the First World War. On one side there was the Entente, on the other - the Triple Alliance. Each group had its own leaders and allies.

The Entente included: the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France. On the side of these countries were the USA, Italy, as well as Romania, New Zealand, Canada and Australia.

The Triple Alliance included: Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. During the hostilities, the Bulgarian kingdom also joined them, which is why the coalition was later called the Quadruple Alliance.

A country	Entering the war	Exit from the war
🌏 Austria-Hungary	July 27, 1914	November 3, 1918
🌏 Germany	August 1, 1914	November 11, 1918
🌏 Türkiye	October 29, 1914	October 30, 1918
🌏 Bulgaria	October 14, 1915	September 29, 1918
🌏 Russia	August 1, 1914	March 3, 1918
🌏 France	August 3, 1914
🌏 Belgium	August 3, 1914
🌏 UK	4 August 1914
🌏 Italy	May 23, 1915
🌏 Romania	August 27, 1916

At the very beginning, Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, but as soon as the outbreak of the First World War was announced, this country declared its neutrality.

Causes

The main reason for the outbreak of the war was the claims of the leading (at that time) world powers to redistribute the world. England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary planned to expand their spheres of influence in one way or another.

Already by the beginning of the 20th century, the colonial system, which fed the leading powers so well, suddenly failed. European countries for decades they took valuable resources from Africans and Indians, exploiting their colonies. But the world has changed, now resources could not be obtained so easily - the powers decided to take them from each other by force.

Against this background, contradictions grew stronger and stronger:

England and Germany: the first power did everything possible to prevent the second from strengthening its position in the Balkans. At the same time, Germany not only sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, but also made efforts to deprive England of its naval supremacy on the world stage.
Germany and France: the French dreamed of returning Alsace and Lorraine - lands lost during the war of 1870 - 1871. France was also interested in the Saar coal basin, which at that time belonged to Germany.
Germany and Russia: the Germans were hunting for Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states, which at that time belonged to Russian Empire.
Russia and Austria-Hungary: For these two powers, the main contradictions centered on the desire to influence the Balkans. And Russia also wanted to take the Bosporus and Dardanelles for itself.

Reason for starting the war

The impetus that triggered the First World War occurred in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina): nineteen-year-old Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist from the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke and heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.

“Young Bosnia”, within which Gavrilo Princip acted, being a member of the Black Hand organization, fought for the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary. The murder of the heir to the throne was that very step on the path to liberation, but the resonance received on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo was greater than the participants in those events probably expected.

German helmets from the First World War

Austria-Hungary received a reason to attack Serbia, but at the same time it could not start a war on its own. She needed the help of England, which, in turn, acted aggressively, trying to manipulate Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. On the one hand, the British insisted that Nicholas II and the Russian Empire help Serbia in case of aggression. On the other hand, the English press exposed the Serbs as real barbarians who could not be left unpunished, thereby pushing Austria-Hungary to take active action.

Thus, the resulting conflict turned into the raging flames of a world war. And England played no small role in this as the leading power of that time.

In textbooks we stick to only the most common facts - the casus belli is the assassination of the Archduke on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo. But you need to understand that behind the scenes fertile ground was being prepared for the ignition of a full-fledged world conflict:

Influential French politician Jean Jaurès was assassinated on June 29, the day after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Jean Jaurès opposed the war.
A few weeks before these two murders mentioned above, an attempt was made on the life of Rasputin, an ardent opponent of the war, who had serious influence on Nicholas II, Emperor of the Russian Empire.
Russian Ambassador Hartley died in the Austrian embassy in Serbia in 1914. By the way, in 1917, his correspondence with Sozonov, the next Russian ambassador to Serbia, mysteriously disappeared.

British diplomats acted “on two fronts”: they egged on Germany, promising to take Germany’s side in the war with the Russian Empire or in as a last resort maintain neutrality; and at the same time, Nicholas II received confirmation that England was preparing to help him in a potential war against Germany.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the powers of Russia and Germany were approximately equal in their global influence. Even after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, these two powers took a wait-and-see attitude, not daring to open military action. If England had made it clear to both Russia and Germany that it would not allow war in Europe, none of these countries would have decided to go to war. Austria-Hungary would also not go to war with Serbia, despite the murder. But England did everything so that each country prepared to fight, promising each side its help behind the backs of the others.

When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, it was not yet the First World War. To grow from a small war between two states over murder into a world war, all the major powers of the time had to be drawn into the conflict. Each of them was at a different level of readiness for war.

Nicholas II understood perfectly well that the Russian Empire was not ready for military action, but could not remain on the sidelines, given that its authority in the Balkans, which had been so hard won earlier, was at stake. As a result, the emperor signs a decree on mobilization. And despite the fact that all-Russian mobilization is not yet a declaration of war, Germany and Austria-Hungary took the Russian mobilization as a signal for active action. These two powers even demanded that Russia stop mobilization, but there was no answer. August 1 German Ambassador Count Pourtales arrived in Russian Ministry Foreign Affairs with a note declaring war.

Military power of powers

Map of military operations in 1914 – 1915 (clickable)

Let's look at the balance of forces and military weapons of key countries in the First World War:

A country	Number of common weapons	Of these heavy guns
🌏 Russian Empire	7088	240
🌏 Austria-Hungary	4088	1000
🌏 Germany	9388	3260
🌏 France	4300	198

Germany and Austria-Hungary turned out to have significantly more heavy guns, but at the same time Germany developed its military industry even more actively. For comparison, England produced up to 10 thousand shells per month, and Germany produced more than 250 thousand per day alone.

Now let's compare the weapons and equipment availability of the leading powers of the First World War:

Side in the war	A country	Weapon	Artillery	Tanks
Entente	Russia	3328	11,7
Entente	France	2812	23,2	5,3
Entente	England	4093	26,4	2,8
Triple Alliance	Germany	8827	64	0,1
Triple Alliance	Austria-Hungary	3540	15,9

It's obvious that military power The Russian Empire was greatly inferior not only to Germany, but also to France and England. This could not but affect the course of military operations and losses as a result of the war.

It remains to analyze the number of fighting infantry at the beginning and end of the war, as well as the losses of each side:

Side in the war	A country	Start of the war	End of the war	Losses
Entente	Russia	5.3 million	7.0 million	2.3 million
Entente	France	3.7 million	4.4 million	1.4 million
Entente	England	1 million	3.9 million	0.7 million
Triple Alliance	Germany	3.8 million	7.6 million	2 million
Triple Alliance	Austria-Hungary	2.3 million	4.4 million	1.4 million

What conclusion can we draw from this summary? England suffered the least human losses, which was not a surprise, because this country almost did not take part in major battles.

As a result of the war, it turned out that those countries that invested the most in this war lost the most. While Russia and Germany were losing 4.3 million people between them, France, Austria-Hungary and England together lost 3.5 million. In fact, the war was fought between Russia and Germany and it was these two powers that were left with nothing: Russia lost lands and signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and Germany lost its independence as a result of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

Chronicle of events

July 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Countries were drawn into the conflict Triple Alliance and the Entente.

August 1, 1914. The Russian Empire entered the war. Nikolai Romanov, the uncle of Nicholas II, was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

As soon as the First World War began, St. Petersburg was immediately renamed Petrograd: the capital of the Russian Empire could not have a name with German origin.

Military operations in 1914

What happened on the fronts:

Northwestern Front. Military operations took place from August to September 1914. Russian troops carried out the East Prussian operation, which ended in the complete defeat of the first and second Russian armies.
Southwestern Front. Military operations during the Galician operation also lasted from August to September 1914 against the Austro-Hungarian troops. The latter received reinforcements from Germany, which saved them.
Caucasian Front. From December 1914 to January 1915, the Sarykamysh operation against Turkish troops took place, as a result of which most of Transcaucasia was occupied.

Military operations on the Eastern Front in 1914

The Russian Empire opposes Germany and Austria-Hungary. Türkiye also joined the latter.

📌 Military operations on the Eastern Front were not successful for either side - no one achieved a tangible victory.

Germany developed a plan to defeat France, then Russia, with lightning speed, but this plan failed miserably. It was called the Schlieffen plan and its essence was to destroy France from the Western Front in 40 days, and then fight Russia on the Eastern Front. The Germans focused on 40 days because they believed that this was the time the Russian Empire needed to mobilize.

The advance of German troops started successfully - on August 2, 1914 they captured Luxembourg, and on August 4 the Germans had already invaded Belgium, which at that time was a neutral country. On August 20, Germany moved towards France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River. A battle took place there with a total of 2 million people fighting.

Germany thought that it could cope with France while Russia mobilized its troops, but Nicholas II entered the war without a full mobilization of the army. Russian troops attacked East Prussia on August 4, which the Germans did not expect and even retreated at first. But in the end, Germany repulsed the attack, since the Russian Empire did not have full resources or proper organization. Russia lost the battle, but also did not allow Germany to realize lightning plan Schlieffen: while the Russian Empire was losing the first and second armies, France saved Paris.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1914

In parallel with the offensive in the East, the Russian Empire went to Galicia, where the Austro-Hungarian troops were located. Despite assistance from Germany, which sent additional divisions to the allied Austria-Hungary, this operation was more successful for the Russian army: Austria-Hungary lost 400 thousand soldiers, another 100 thousand were captured. At the same time, Russia lost 150 thousand.

📌 After the Galician operation, Austria-Hungary left the war, no longer able to fight on its own.

Results of 1914:

The German Schlieffen plan to capture the French and Russian armies at lightning speed failed miserably.
None of the powers gained a significant advantage during the war.
As a result of 1914, the First World War became a positional war.

Military operations in 1915

When it became clear that the Schlieffen Plan had failed, Germany sent all its forces to the Eastern Front to fight Russia. At that moment, it seemed to Germany that the Russian Empire was the weakest country of the Entente and was much easier to deal with than the others.

The strategic plan for command on the Eastern Front was developed by General von Hindenburg. The Russian Empire thwarted this plan as well, but spent enormous effort on it and only got out at the cost of incredible losses.

What happened on the fronts:

Northwestern Front. Military operations took place from January to October 1915. As a result of the German offensive, Russia loses Poland, Western Belarus, Ukraine and part of the Baltic states. The Russians take a defensive position.
Southwestern Front. Military operations lasted from January to March 1915. During the Carpathian operation against the Austro-Hungarian troops, the Russian army loses Galicia and goes on the defensive.
Caucasian Front. From June to July 1915, the Alashkert operation lasted near lakes Van and Urmia against the Turkish army. In December 1915, the Erzurum operation began.

Military operations on the Northwestern Front in 1915

From the beginning of 1915 until October, Germany was actively attacking Russia, as a result of which the latter lost Poland, Western Ukraine, partly the Baltic states and Western Belarus. During this German offensive, the Russian Empire lost 850 thousand people and 900 thousand soldiers were captured.

Despite the fact that the Russian Empire did not capitulate after these military actions, but went on the defensive, the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would not recover from its losses.

📌 After a successful attack for Germany and the defeat of the Russian army, Bulgaria joined this side - from October 14, 1915.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1915

The German army with the remnants of the surviving Austro-Hungarian army in the spring of 1915 makes the Gorlitsky breakthrough. Russia retreats along the Southwestern Front and loses Galicia, which it only conquered in 1914. On the German side there was not only a significant technical advantage, but also strategic mistakes of the Russian command.

📌 At that time, Germany had 2.5 times more machine guns, 4.5 times more light artillery, and the number of heavy artillery was 40 times greater.

Military operations on the Western Front in 1915

On Western Front War broke out between Germany and France. Actions on both sides were sluggish and lack of initiative. Germany focused more on the Eastern Front, while England and France at that time were mobilizing armies in preparation for further actions.

Nicholas II repeatedly turned to France for help, at least to make it more active on the Western Front, but in vain.

Results of 1915:

The German plan to destroy the Russian army failed, but the losses of the Russian Empire were colossal, although not huge enough to take Russia out of the war.
After 1.5 years of hostilities, neither side has gained a strategic advantage or superiority. The war dragged on.

Military operations in 1916

The 16th year of the 20th century began with Germany losing the strategic initiative. The successful Russian offensive once again plays into the hands of allied France - the Verdun fortress is saved. At this stage, Romania joins the Entente.

Let's take a brief look at what happened in the third year of the war:

Northwestern Front. From spring to autumn, defensive battles are fought on the western border.
Southwestern Front. From May to July 1916, the Russian army advances and makes the Brusilov breakthrough. During these actions, Russia recaptures Bukovina and Southern Galicia, destroying the Austro-Hungarian troops.
Caucasian Front. The Erzurum operation comes to an end and the Trebizond operation begins, as a result of which Erzurum and Trebizond are captured.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1916

In February 1916, German troops decisively advance into France to capture Paris. Defended the capital Verdun, a fortress on the outskirts of Paris. It was to Verdun that Germany went. 2 million people died in that battle, and it lasted until the very end of 1916.

📌 Considering how much time was spent capturing the Verdun fortress, and how many people died, those battles were called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France managed to survive, but only because Russia came to its aid.

Russian troops had been actively advancing along the Southwestern Front since May 1916. This offensive went down in history as the Brusilov breakthrough, since General Brusilov was in command. The offensive lasted for 2 months.

The actual breakthrough occurred on June 5 in Bukovina. The Russian army not only broke through the defenses, but also advanced 120 km inland. The losses of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies in that breakthrough amounted to 1.5 million people - wounded and prisoners in total. The Russian offensive was stopped only after the transfer of additional German divisions, which at that time were located near Verdun and in Italy.

Having entered the war on the side of the Entente, Romania was unable to resist the German army. Germany quickly dealt with the Romanian troops, inflicting a serious defeat on them. As a result, Russia has 2 thousand km of additional front, which means additional losses.

Results of 1916:

The strategic initiative was on the side of the Entente.
France re-defended Paris from attack, retaining the fortress of Verdun. But, like the first time, this happened thanks to the help of the Russian Empire.
In the third year of the war, Romania joined the Entente, but Germany quickly destroyed its army.
A significant achievement of the Russian Empire this year was the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military operations in 1917

The year 1917 was fatal for the Russian Empire. On all fronts, Russian troops carry out unsuccessful operations: Germany captures Riga, and then the Moonsund archipelago in the Baltic. The Russian army is demoralized, and popular unrest is directed towards peace. Changes are ripe within the country - on November 20 (December 3) the Bolsheviks seize power and negotiate for peace. As a result of these negotiations, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was signed on March 3, 1918.

Armored Train in the Carpathians (New York Public Library Archives)

In both Germany and Russia, the economic situation worsened due to the war in 1917. For example, in the Russian Empire, during the first 3 years of the war, food prices increased 4–5 times. A dissatisfied people, a grueling war, great human losses - all this served as fertile ground for the revolutionaries, who hastened to take advantage of the moment to seize power. A similar picture emerged in Germany.

As for the balance of power in the First World War, the position of the Triple Alliance was seriously weakened: Germany could no longer fight on two fronts, and then the United States entered the war.

The end of the First World War for the Russian Empire

In the spring of 1917, Germany tried to carry out an offensive on the Western Front, but the Provisional Government in Russia, trying to fulfill the agreements signed by the Russian Empire, sent its troops to Lvov on the offensive.

Once again, the allies are saved, but the Russian army is suffering crushing losses step by step - the provisions are meager, the uniforms and provisions for the soldiers leave much to be desired, but even in such circumstances, the Russian troops are trying to move forward. Meanwhile, Russia's allies are not actively participating or providing the necessary assistance.

On July 6, when Germany launched a counteroffensive, 150 thousand Russian soldiers died. The front collapsed, and the Russian army ceased to exist. Russia had nothing and no one else to fight with.

In such conditions, the Bolsheviks, having seized power in the country in October 1917, signed the decree “On Peace”, thereby leaving the war, and already in 1918, on March 3, the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, according to which Russia:

makes peace with Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey;
renounces claims to Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, Finland and part of Belarus;
inferior to Batum, Ardahan and Kars to Turkey.

Having entered the First World War, the Russian Empire:

ceased to exist as a power, giving power to the Bolsheviks;
lost 1 million sq. m of territory;
lost a quarter of the population;
seriously weakened in the agricultural sector and in the coal/metallurgical industry.

Military operations in 1918

With the Eastern Front gone, Germany could no longer be split into two directions. In the spring, she headed to the Western Front, but achieved no success there. It became obvious that she needed a break.

Decisive events occurred in the fall of 1918, when the United States and the Entente countries attacked the German army, displacing it from the territories of France and Belgium. Already in October, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey concluded a truce with the Entente powers and now Germany found itself in complete isolation. The Triple Alliance capitulated and, like the events in Russia, fertile ground for revolution was formed in Germany, which occurred on November 9, 1918 - Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

War heroes and their exploits

A.A. Brusilov (1853-1926). He commanded the Southwestern Front and carried out a successful operation, which was later called the Brusilov breakthrough. The army of military leader Brusilov forced the enemy to think from which side the main blow was being delivered. The tactic of simultaneous attacks in several directions worked in four cases at once. In 3 days, more than 100 thousand people were captured. Over the entire summer, the Russian army took territory from the Germans and Austro-Hungarians all the way to the Carpathians.

M.V. Alekseev (1857 – 1918). Infantry general and chief of staff of the Russian army on the Southwestern Front. He led the largest operations, leading the Russian army.

Kozma Kryuchkov– first to receive in World War I St. George's Cross. He served in the Don Cossack Regiment and, with other comrades, once met a patrol of German cavalrymen. Of the 22 enemies, he personally killed ten, among whom was an officer. He himself received 16 wounds. His name is not so well known, because in 1919 Kryuchkov gave his life in battles with the Bolsheviks, serving in the ranks of the White Army.

The St. George Cross was also received by Vasily Chapaev, Georgy Zhukov, Konstantin Rokossovsky, Rodion Malinovsky.

A.I. Denikin (1872 – 1947). Military leader and general of the First World War. He was the commander of the “iron brigade”, which distinguished itself in battles more than once.

P.N. Nesterov (1887 – 1914). Russian pilot who invented the aerial loop named after him. He died in 1914, in battle, after ramming an enemy airplane.

End of the First World War

The First World War ended on November 11, 1918, when Germany signed its surrender. In the Compiègne forest at the Retord station, near Paris, the French Marshal Foch accepted the surrender of the defeated power. As a result, Germany:

admitted defeat in the war;
pledged to return Alsace and Lorraine, as well as the Saar coal basin to France;
abandoned all her colonies;
transferred an eighth of its territories to its neighbors.

In addition, the signed surrender required that:

Entente troops were stationed on the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years;
until May 1921, Germany had to pay the Entente powers (except Russia) 20 billion marks;
for 30 years, Germany was obliged to pay reparations, the amount of which the victorious countries could change during these 30 years;
Germany did not have the right to form an army of more than 100 thousand people, while the army itself must be voluntary for citizens.

All these conditions were so humiliating for Germany that they actually deprived it of its independence, making it an obedient puppet in the hands of other powers.

Results of the First World War

World War I involved 14 major countries and a total of 38 powers in total. This meant that during the 4 years of the war, 1 billion people or 62% of the planet's population were involved. During the entire war, 74 million people were mobilized, of whom 10 million were killed and 20 million were injured.

The political map of Europe has been redrawn:

New states appeared, such as: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Finland, Estonia, Albania.
Austria-Hungary ceased to exist, splitting into 3 independent states: Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
The borders of France, Italy, Greece and Romania expanded.

The losing countries that lost land were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria and Türkiye. During the war, 4 empires ceased to exist: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman.

So, it was the First World War 1914 - 1918: causes, stages, results briefly and in pictures. We looked at the years - the beginning and end of the battles (including separately for Russia), who won and how many people died (a card index of countries' losses in the table), and also found out who the war heroes were and their exploits. Do you have any questions? Ask them in the comments.

Sources

Ardashev A.N. The Great Trench War. Positional massacre of the First World War
Pereslegin S.B. First World War. War between Realities
Basil Liddell Hart. History of the First World War
Evgeniy Belash. Myths of the First World War
Anatoly Utkin. World War I
Badak A.N. The World History. Volume 19

Air battle

According to general consensus, the First World War is one of the largest armed conflicts in human history. Its result was the collapse of four empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German.

In 1914, events occurred as follows.

In 1914, two main theaters of military operations emerged: French and Russian, as well as the Balkans (Serbia), the Caucasus and, from November 1914, the Middle East, colonies European countries– Africa, China, Oceania. At the beginning of the war, no one thought that it would become protracted; its participants intended to end the war in a few months.

Start

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, the Germans, without any declaration of war, invaded Luxembourg on the same day, and the very next day they occupied Luxembourg and issued an ultimatum to Belgium to allow German troops to pass to the border with France. Belgium did not accept the ultimatum, and Germany declared war on it, invading Belgium on August 4.

King Albert of Belgium turned for help to the guarantor countries of Belgian neutrality. In London they demanded to stop the invasion of Belgium, otherwise England threatened to declare war on Germany. The ultimatum expired and Great Britain declared war on Germany.

Belgian armored Sava car on the Franco-Belgian border

The military wheel of the First World War began to roll and gain momentum.

Western Front

At the beginning of the war, Germany had ambitious plans: the instant defeat of France, passing through the territory of Belgium, the capture of Paris... Wilhelm II said: “We will have lunch in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.” He did not take Russia into account at all, considering it a sluggish power: it was unlikely to be able to quickly mobilize and bring its army to its borders . This was the so-called Schlieffen plan, developed by the Chief of the German General Staff Alfred von Schlieffen (modified by Helmuth von Moltke after Schlieffen's resignation).

Count von Schlieffen

He was wrong, this Schlieffen: France launched an unforeseen counterattack in the outskirts of Paris (Battle of the Marne), and Russia quickly launched an offensive, so the German plan failed and the German army began trench warfare.

Nicholas II declares war on Germany from the balcony of the Winter Palace

The French believed that Germany would deliver the initial and main blow to Alsace. They had their own military doctrine: Plan-17. As part of this doctrine, the French command intended to station troops along its eastern border and launch an offensive through the territories of Lorraine and Alsace, which the Germans occupied. The same actions were provided for by the Schlieffen Plan.

Then a surprise occurred on the part of Belgium: its army, 10 times inferior in size to the German army, unexpectedly put up active resistance. But still, on August 20, the Germans captured Brussels. The Germans behaved confidently and boldly: they did not stop in front of the defending cities and fortresses, but simply bypassed them. The Belgian government fled to Le Havre. King Albert I continued to defend Antwerp. “After a short siege, heroic defense and fierce bombardment, the last stronghold of the Belgians, the fortress of Antwerp, fell on September 26. Under a hail of shells from the muzzles of monstrous guns brought by the Germans and installed on platforms they had built in advance, fort after fort fell silent. On September 23, the Belgian government left Antwerp, and on September 24 the bombing of the city began. Entire streets were in flames. Huge oil tanks were burning in the port. Zeppelins and airplanes bombarded the unfortunate city from above.

Air battle

The civilian population fled in panic from the doomed city, tens of thousands, escaping in all directions: on ships to England and France, on foot to Holland” (Spark Sunday magazine, October 19, 1914).

Border battle

On August 7, the Border Battle began between Anglo-French and German troops. After the German invasion of Belgium, the French command urgently revised its plans and began actively moving units towards the border. But the Anglo-French armies suffered heavy defeats at the Battle of Mons, the Battle of Charleroi and the Ardennes Operation, losing about 250 thousand people. The Germans invaded France, bypassing Paris, capturing the French army in a giant pincer. On September 2, the French government moved to Bordeaux. The defense of the city was led by General Gallieni. The French were preparing to defend Paris along the Marne River.

Joseph Simon Gallieni

Battle of the Marne ("Miracle of the Marne")

But by this time the German army had already begun to become exhausted. She did not have the opportunity for deep coverage French army bypassing Paris. The Germans decided to turn east north of Paris and strike in the rear of the main forces of the French army.

But, turning east north of Paris, they exposed their right flank and rear to the attack of the French group concentrated for the defense of Paris. There was nothing to cover the right flank and rear. But the German command agreed to this maneuver: it turned its troops to the east, not reaching Paris. The French command took advantage of the opportunity and struck the exposed flank and rear of the German army. Even taxis were used to transport troops.

“Marne taxi”: such vehicles were used to transport troops

First Battle of the Marneturned the tide of hostilities in favor of the French and pushed German troops on the front from Verdun to Amiens 50-100 kilometers back.

The main battle on the Marne began on September 5, and already on September 9 the defeat of the German army became obvious. The order to withdraw was met in the German army with complete misunderstanding: for the first time during the hostilities, a mood of disappointment and depression began in the German army. And for the French, this battle became the first victory over the Germans, the morale of the French grew stronger. The British realized their military inadequacy and set a course for increasing armed forces. The Battle of the Marne was the turning point of the war in the French theater of operations: the front stabilized and the enemy forces were approximately equal.

Battles in Flanders

The Battle of the Marne led to the "Run to the Sea": both armies moved to try to flank each other. This led to the front line closing in and resting on the shore North Sea. By November 15, the entire space between Paris and the North Sea was filled with troops of both sides. The front was in a stable state: the offensive potential of the Germans had been exhausted, and both sides began a positional struggle. The Entente managed to retain ports convenient for sea communication with England - especially the port of Calais.

Eastern front

On August 17, the Russian army crossed the border and began an attack on East Prussia. At first, the actions of the Russian army were successful, but the command was unable to take advantage of the results of the victory. The movement of other Russian armies slowed down and was not coordinated; the Germans took advantage of this, striking from the west on the open flank of the 2nd Army. This army at the beginning of the First World War was commanded by General A.V. Samsonov, participant of the Russian-Turkish (1877-1878), Russo-Japanese War, ataman of the Don Army, Semirechensk Cossack Army, Turkestan Governor-General. During the East Prussian operation of 1914, his army suffered a heavy defeat in the Battle of Tannenberg, part of it was surrounded. When leaving the encirclement near the city of Willenberg (now Wielbark, Poland), Alexander Vasilyevich Samsonov died. According to another, more common version, it is believed that he shot himself.

General A.V. Samsonov

In this battle, the Russians defeated several German divisions, but lost in the general battle. Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich in his book “My Memoirs” wrote that the 150,000-strong Russian army of General Samsonov was a victim deliberately thrown into the trap set by Ludendorff.”

Battle of Galicia (August-September 1914)

This is one of the largest battles of the First World War. As a result of this battle, Russian troops occupied almost all of eastern Galicia, almost all of Bukovina and besieged Przemysl. The operation involved the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th armies as part of the Russian Southwestern Front (front commander - General N.I. Ivanov) and four Austro-Hungarian armies (Archduke Friedrich, Field Marshal Götzendorf) and the German group of General R. Woyrsch. The seizure of Galicia was perceived in Russia not as an occupation, but as the return of a seized part of historical Rus', because it was dominated by the Orthodox Slavic population.

N.S. Samokish “In Galicia. Cavalryman"

Results of 1914 on the Eastern Front

The 1914 campaign turned out in favor of Russia, although on the German part of the front Russia lost part of the territory of the Kingdom of Poland. Russia's defeat in East Prussia also accompanied by heavy losses. But Germany was also unable to achieve the planned results; all its successes from a military point of view were very modest.

Advantages of Russia: managed to inflict a major defeat on Austria-Hungary and capture significant territories. Austria-Hungary turned from a full ally for Germany into a weak partner requiring continuous support.

Difficulties for Russia: the war by 1915 turned into a positional one. The Russian army began to feel the first signs of an ammunition supply crisis. Advantages of the Entente: Germany was forced to fight on two fronts simultaneously and transfer troops from front to front.

Japan enters the war

The Entente (mainly England) convinced Japan to oppose Germany. On August 15, Japan presented an ultimatum to Germany, demanding the withdrawal of troops from China, and on August 23, it declared war and began the siege of Qingdao, a German naval base in China, which ended with the surrender of the German garrison.

Then Japan began to seize Germany's island colonies and bases (German Micronesia and German New Guinea, the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands). At the end of August, New Zealand troops captured German Samoa.

Japan's participation in the war on the side of the Entente turned out to be beneficial for Russia: its Asian part was safe, and Russia did not have to spend resources on maintaining the army and navy in this region.

Asian Theater of Operations

Türkiye initially hesitated for a long time whether to enter the war and on whose side. Finally, she declared “jihad” (holy war) on the Entente countries. On November 11-12, the Turkish fleet under the command of the German admiral Suchon shelled Sevastopol, Odessa, Feodosia and Novorossiysk. On November 15, Russia declared war on Turkey, followed by England and France.

The Caucasian Front was formed between Russia and Turkey.

Russian airplane in the back of a truck on Caucasian Front

In December 1914 - January 1915. took placeSarykamysh operation: The Russian Caucasian Army stopped the advance of Turkish troops on Kars, defeated them and launched a counter-offensive.

But Russia at the same time lost the most convenient route of communication with its allies - through the Black Sea and the straits. Russia had only two ports for transportation large quantity cargo: Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok.

Results of the military campaign of 1914

By the end of 1914, Belgium was almost completely conquered by Germany. The Entente retained a small western part of Flanders with the city of Ypres. Lille was taken by the Germans. The 1914 campaign was dynamic. The armies of both sides maneuvered actively and quickly; the troops did not erect long-term defensive lines. By November 1914, a stable front line began to take shape. Both sides exhausted their offensive potential and began building trenches and barbed wire. The war turned into a positional one.

Russian expeditionary force in France: the head of the 1st brigade, General Lokhvitsky, with several Russian and French officers bypasses the positions (summer 1916, Champagne)

The length of the Western Front (from the North Sea to Switzerland) was more than 700 km, the density of troops on it was high, significantly higher than on the Eastern Front. Intense military operations were carried out only on the northern half of the front; the front from Verdun and to the south was considered as secondary.

"Cannon fodder"

On November 11, the Battle of Langemarck took place, which the world community called senseless and neglected human lives: the Germans threw units of unfired young people (workers and students) at the British machine guns. After some time, this happened again, and this fact became an established opinion about the soldiers in this war as “cannon fodder.”

By the beginning of 1915, everyone began to understand that the war had become protracted. This was not included in the plans of either party. Although the Germans captured almost all of Belgium and most of France, their main goal - a swift victory over the French - was completely inaccessible to them.

Ammunition supplies ran out by the end of 1914, and it was urgently necessary to establish their mass production. The power of heavy artillery turned out to be underestimated. The fortresses were practically unprepared for defense. As a result, Italy, as the third member of the Triple Alliance, did not enter the war on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Front lines of the First World War by the end of 1914

The first war year ended with these results.

The First World War became the largest military conflict of the first third of the twentieth century and all the wars that took place before that. So when did World War I start and what year did it end? The date July 28, 1914 is the beginning of the war, and its end is November 11, 1918.

When did the first world war start?

The beginning of the First World War was the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia. The reason for the war was the murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown by the nationalist Gavrilo Princip.

Speaking briefly about the First World War, it should be noted that the main reason for the hostilities that arose was the conquest of a place in the sun, the desire to rule the world with the emerging balance of power, the emergence of Anglo-German trade barriers, the absolute phenomenon in the development of the state as economic imperialism and territorial claims of some states to others.

On June 28, 1914, Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo. On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, beginning the main war of the first third of the 20th century.

Rice. 1. Gavrilo Princip.

Russia in the First World War

Russia announced mobilization, preparing to defend the fraternal people, which brought upon itself an ultimatum from Germany to stop the formation of new divisions. On August 1, 1914, Germany declared an official declaration of war on Russia.

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In 1914, military operations on the Eastern Front took place in Prussia, where a rapid advance Russian troops was thrown back by the German counteroffensive and the defeat of Samsonov's army. The offensive in Galicia was more effective. On the Western Front, the course of military operations was more pragmatic. The Germans invaded France through Belgium and moved at an accelerated pace to Paris. Only at the Battle of the Marne was the offensive stopped by Allied forces and the parties moved on to a long trench war that lasted until 1915.

In 1915, Germany's former ally, Italy, entered the war on the side of the Entente. This is how the southwestern front was formed. The fighting took place in the Alps, giving rise to a mountain war.

22 April 1915 during the Battle of Ypres German soldiers used chlorine poison gas against Entente forces, which became the first gas attack in history.

A similar meat grinder happened on the Eastern Front. The defenders of the Osovets fortress in 1916 covered themselves with unfading glory. The German forces, several times superior to the Russian garrison, were unable to take the fortress after mortar and artillery fire and several assaults. After this, a chemical attack was used. When the Germans, walking in gas masks through the smoke, believed that there were no survivors left in the fortress, Russian soldiers ran out at them, coughing blood and wrapped in various rags. The bayonet attack was unexpected. The enemy, many times superior in number, was finally driven back.

Rice. 2. Defenders of Osovets.

At the Battle of the Somme in 1916, tanks were used for the first time by the British during an attack. Despite frequent breakdowns and low accuracy, the attack had a more psychological effect.

Rice. 3. Tanks on the Somme.

In order to distract the Germans from the breakthrough and pull forces away from Verdun, Russian troops planned an offensive in Galicia, the result of which was to be the surrender of Austria-Hungary. This is how the “Brusilovsky breakthrough” occurred, which, although it moved the front line tens of kilometers to the west, did not solve the main problem.

At sea, a major battle took place between the British and Germans near the Jutland Peninsula in 1916. The German fleet intended to break the naval blockade. More than 200 ships took part in the battle, with the British outnumbering them, but during the course of the battle there was no winner, and the blockade continued.

The United States joined the Entente in 1917, for which entry into the world war on the winning side was the most last moment has become a classic. The German command erected a reinforced concrete “Hindenburg Line” from Lens to the Aisne River, behind which the Germans retreated and switched to a defensive war.

French General Nivelle developed a plan for a counteroffensive on the Western Front. Massive artillery bombardment and attacks on different sectors of the front did not produce the desired effect.

In 1917, in Russia, during two revolutions, the Bolsheviks came to power and concluded the shameful separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. On March 3, 1918, Russia left the war.
In the spring of 1918, the Germans launched their last, “spring offensive.” They intended to break through the front and take France out of the war, however, the numerical superiority of the Allies prevented them from doing this.

Economic exhaustion and growing dissatisfaction with the war forced Germany to the negotiating table, during which a peace treaty was concluded at Versailles.

What have we learned?

Regardless of who fought whom and who won, history has shown that the end of the First World War did not solve all of humanity's problems. The battle for the redivision of the world did not end; the allies did not finish off Germany and its allies completely, but only depleted them economically, which led to the signing of peace. The Second World War was only a matter of time.

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Thirty-eight of the fifty sovereign states that existed at that time were involved in the First World War to one degree or another. It was simply not possible to control such a large-scale theater of military operations, so the path to signing a peace agreement was quite long and difficult.

Entente's Hundred Day Offensive

The final stage The 100-day offensive became a long and bloody First World War. This large scale military operation The armed forces of the Entente against the German army ended in the defeat of the enemy and the signing of the Compiegne Truce, which ended the war. IN decisive offensive Belgian, Australian, English, French, American, and Canadian troops took part, and Canadian soldiers distinguished themselves.

The German offensive ended in the summer of 1918. Enemy troops reached the banks of the Marne River, but (as before, in 1914) suffered a serious defeat. The Allies began to actively develop a plan for the defeat of the German army. The day of the end of World War I was approaching. Marshal Foch concluded that the most favorable moment for a major offensive had finally arrived. The number of American troops in France by the summer of 1918 was increased to 1.2 million people, which made it possible to neutralize the numerical superiority of the German army. British troops received reinforcements from Palestine.

The main attack site was the area on the Somme River. Here was the border between British and French troops. The flat terrain allowed tank battles, and the big advantage of the Allies was the presence of a significant mass of tanks. In addition, this area was covered by a weakened German army. The order of attack was clearly planned, and the plan for breaking through the defense was methodical. All preparations were carried out secretly, using measures to mislead the enemy.

In the year of the end of World War I, the German army was already sufficiently weakened, which made it possible to successfully conduct offensive operations. In August, the Allies began firing at communications centers, rear facilities, observation and command posts, and positions of the Second German Army. At the same time it was organized tank attack. This suddenness was a complete success. The Amiens operation came as a surprise to the German command, and the battle conditions for the enemy were complicated by thick fog and massive shell explosions.

In just one day of the offensive, German troops lost up to 27 thousand people killed and captured, about four hundred guns, and a significant amount of various property. Allied aircraft shot down 62 aircraft. The offensive continued on August 9 and 10. By this time, the Germans had managed to reorganize for defense, so the advance developed at a slower pace, French and British tanks suffered losses. By August 12, German troops were driven out to Albert, Bray, Sean, west of Roy. The next day, the offensive stopped, as the troops of Great Britain and France completed their task, bringing the end of World War 1 closer.

The front line was reduced by twenty-four kilometers as a result of the Saint-Mihiel operation. During the four days of the active Allied offensive, German troops lost approximately 16 thousand people as prisoners, more than four hundred guns; the losses of the American army did not exceed 7 thousand people. The Saint-Mihiel operation was the first independent American offensive. Despite the fact that success was achieved, the operation revealed shortcomings in the soldiers’ training and the lack of necessary experience among the US command. In fact, the offensive began when the Germans had already managed to withdraw some of the troops from the territory.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

At the beginning of January 1918, the date of the end of World War I, the draft of the future peace treaty was already ready. The document was developed by US President V. Wilson. The agreement provided for the withdrawal German armies from Belgium and Russia, arms reduction, declaration of independence of Poland, creation of the League of Nations. This program was approved reluctantly by the US allies, but later became the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. The “Fourteen Points” became an alternative to the Peace Decree, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin and was not acceptable to Western states.

The end of World War I was approaching, so the need to develop a document that would regulate relations between countries after the end of hostilities was an important issue. proposed open peace negotiations, after which there would be no secret agreements. It was supposed to make shipping free, eliminate all economic barriers, establish equality in trade for all states, reduce national armaments to a minimum that is reasonable and compatible with domestic security, and resolve colonial disputes absolutely impartially.

Fourteen points included Russia in the question. All Russian territories must be liberated by the end of World War I. Russia was guaranteed the right to make an independent decision regarding national policy and path political development. The country must be ensured admission to the League of Nations in the form of government that it independently chooses. As for Belgium, complete liberation and restoration were envisaged, without attempts to limit sovereignty.

November Revolution in Germany

Just before the end of World War I, a revolution thundered in Germany, the cause of which was the crisis of the Kaiser’s regime. The beginning of revolutionary actions is considered to be the uprising of sailors in Kiel on November 4, 1918, the culmination is the proclamation of a new political system on November 9, and the end date (formally) is November 11, when Friedrich Ebert signed the Weimar Constitution. The monarchy was overthrown. The revolution led to the establishment of parliamentary democracy.

First Truce of Compiegne

The end date of World War I was approaching. Since the end of October 1918, there was an active exchange of peace notes with the United States, and the German high command sought to obtain the best possible Better conditions truce. An agreement between Germany and the Entente to cease hostilities was signed on November 11. The end of World War I was officially documented in the French region of Picardy, in the Compiegne Forest. The final results of the conflict were summed up by the Treaty of Versailles.

Circumstances of signing

At the end of September 1918, the German command informed the Kaiser, who was at his headquarters in Belgium, that Germany's position was hopeless. There were no guarantees that the front would hold out for at least another day. The Kaiser was advised to accept the terms of the US President and carry out reforms in the government in order to hope for better conditions. This would allow the responsibility for Germany's defeat to be shifted to the democratic parties and parliament, so as not to tarnish the imperial government.

Armistice negotiations began in October 1918. Later it turned out that the Germans were not ready to consider the Kaiser’s abdication, as Woodrow Wilson demanded. Negotiations were delayed, although it was absolutely clear that the end of the 1st World War was approaching. The signing ultimately took place at 5:10 am on November 11 in the carriage of Marshal F. Foch in the Compiegne Forest. The German delegation was received by Marshal Von and British Admiral R. Wimyss. The truce came into force at eleven o'clock in the morning. One hundred and one salvos were fired on this occasion.

Basic terms of the truce

According to the signed agreement, hostilities ceased within six hours from the time of signing, the immediate evacuation of German troops from Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, and Luxembourg began, which was to be completely completed within fifteen days. Following this, German troops were to be evacuated from the territory on the western bank of the Rhine River and within a radius of thirty kilometers from the bridges on the right bank (with further occupation of the liberated territories by the Allies and the United States).

All German troops had to evacuate and eastern front in position as of August 1, 1914 (July 28, 1914 - the date of the start of World War 1), and the end of the withdrawal of troops was replaced by the occupation of US and allied territories. The naval blockade of Germany by Great Britain remained in effect. All submarines and modern ships of Germany were interned (internment is forced detention or other restriction of freedom of movement). The enemy command had to hand over in good condition 1,700 aircraft, 5 thousand locomotives, 150 thousand carriages, 5 thousand guns, 25 thousand machine guns and 3 thousand mortars.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Under the terms of the peace, Germany had to abandon the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with Bolshevik government. This agreement ensured the exit of the RSFSR from the First World War. At the first stage, the Bolsheviks persuaded Western states to conclude a universal peace and even received formal consent. But Soviet side delayed negotiations to agitate for a general revolution, while the German government insisted on recognizing the right to occupy Poland, parts of Belarus and the Baltic states.

The fact of the conclusion of the agreement caused a sharp reaction both among the opposition in Russia and in the international arena, which led to an aggravation of Civil War. The agreement did not lead to the cessation of hostilities in Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe, but was divided by the “clash of empires,” which was finally documented by the end of World War I.

Political consequences

The dates of the beginning and end of World War I mark an important period in modern history. As a result of hostilities, Europe ended its existence as a center colonial world. The four largest empires, namely German, Ottoman, Russian and Austro-Hungarian, collapsed. Communism spread throughout the Russian Empire and Mongolia, and the United States moved to a leading position in international politics.

After the end of the First World War, several new sovereign states emerged: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Finland, the State of the Slovenian-Serbs and Croats. The socio-economic processes of the turn of the century slowed down, but contradictions on an ethnic and class basis, as well as interstate contradictions, intensified. The international legal order has changed significantly.

Economic consequences

The consequences of the war were catastrophic for the economies of most countries. Military losses amounted to $208 billion and were twelve times the gold reserves of European states. A third of Europe's national wealth was simply destroyed. Only two countries increased wealth during the war—Japan and the United States. The United States has finally established itself as a leader economic development in the world, and Japan established a monopoly in Southeast Asia.

The wealth of the United States increased by 40% during the years of hostilities in Europe. Half of the world's gold reserves were concentrated in America, and the value of production increased from 24 to 62 billion dollars. The status of a neutral country allowed the United States to supply military materials, raw materials and food to the warring parties. Trade volumes with other countries doubled, and the value of exports tripled. The country eliminated almost half of its own debt and became a creditor totaling $15 billion.

Germany's total expenditures amounted to 150 billion in local currency, and the national debt increased from five to one hundred and sixty billion marks. By the end of World War I (compared to 1913), production volumes decreased by 43%, agricultural production by 35 to 50%. In 1916, famine began because, due to the blockade by the Entente countries, only a third of the necessary food products were supplied to Germany. According to the Treaty of Versailles, after the end of the armed confrontation, Germany had to pay an indemnity in the amount of 132 billion gold marks.

Destruction and loss of life

During the war, about 10 million military personnel died, including about a million missing in action, and up to 21 million were wounded. The German Empire suffered the greatest losses (1.8 million), 1.7 million citizens died in the Russian Empire, 1.4 million in France, 1.2 million in Austria-Hungary, and 0.95 million in Great Britain. In the war Thirty-four states with a population of about 67% of the world's population took part. As a percentage of the total number of civilians, the most significant losses were suffered by Serbia (6% of citizens died), France (3.4%), Romania (3.3%) and Germany (3%).

Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Conference resolved the main problems of the reconstruction of the world after the end of the First (1) World War. Treaties were signed with Austria, Germany, Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. During the negotiations, the “Big Four” (leaders of France, the USA, Great Britain and Italy) held one hundred and forty-five meetings (in an informal setting) and made all decisions that were later ratified by other participating countries (a total of 27 states participated). None of the governments that at that time claimed the status of legitimate power in the Russian Empire were invited to the conference.

Armistice Day celebrations

The day of the signing of the truce in the Compiegne Forest, which put an end to armed clashes, is a national holiday in most states of the former Entente. The centenary of the end of World War I was celebrated in 2018. In the UK, the victims were remembered with a minute of silence; the remembrance ceremony took place in the French capital at the Arc de Triomphe. The ceremony was attended by leaders of more than 70 countries.

On June 28, the Bosnian city of Sarajevo was especially crowded and lively. Archduke Franz Ferdinand himself arrived in the province recently annexed to the empire to watch the exercises of the glorious Austrian troops. The royal lady moved around the city in a convertible, not particularly concerned about her safety. Two shots fired from the Browning killed the Archduke's wife and himself. It was these few seconds that divided time into “before” and “after” in world history.

Source: tass.ru

Beginning of the First World War

However, hostilities did not begin immediately after the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. The official declaration of war was preceded by a month of tension, the so-called “July Crisis”. Austria-Hungary sent a 10-point ultimatum to the Serbian government. In fact, this was gross interference in the internal affairs of the Balkan country. At the same time, it was no secret that the terrorists who made a successful attempt on the life of a representative of the Austrian ruling house of Habsburg were actively supported by some government and military figures in Serbia. [Collection: The beginning of the First World War]

The ultimatum was handed to the Serbs on July 23. On the 25th the Austrians received an answer. Serbia agreed to fulfill almost all points, with the exception of one - to allow the Austrians into its territory to carry out investigative measures. Many contemporaries assessed this response as a peace-loving gesture on the part of Serbia, but Austria-Hungary was already preparing for a forceful solution to the problem. Germany also supported her in this.

Source: vsefony. wordpress.com

Russia, having learned about what was happening in the Balkans, began a partial mobilization of the population liable for military service. This met with decisive resistance from German Empire. Despite the hesitations of Nicholas II and the threats of Wilhelm II, on July 30 it was announced general mobilization in the Romanov Empire. Russia's ally France also began military preparations. The local conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, which began on July 28, quickly escalated into a pan-European war - on August 1, the war between Russia and Germany began, on August 3 France entered the fray, and the next day - Great Britain.

Participants of the First World War

On the battlefields of the four-year world massacre, the sons of many states laid down their lives. In addition to the main characters: The Entente consisting of Russia, France, Great Britain and Italy, which joined them in 1915, on the one hand, and the bloc of the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) on the other; dominions and satellites of the listed countries participated in the war. [Collection: Participants of the First World War]

Most states sought to solve their foreign policy problems; most often, aggressive goals were set. However, for some countries the war turned out to be a literal struggle for survival. This concerned, first of all, Serbia and Belgium.

Source: history-belarus.by

Austria-Hungary sought to solve the Balkan problem and limit Russian influence in the region. Germany dreamed of a more worthy “place in the sun” and inclusion in colonial system. In this it was opposed by Great Britain, which was also not against increasing its territories and expanding its sales market. France's goal was revenge against Germany, which defeated the country in 1871.

The Russian Empire hoped to strengthen its influence in the Balkans and solve the problem of the Black Sea straits. The dream of Constantinople became an idea that inspired many statesmen and military leaders to wage a difficult war. The Ottoman Empire was, to some extent, fighting a war to the death, but the leaders also had certain geopolitical plans - mainly in the Caucasus.

They did not pursue aggressive goals in the classical sense of the United States - by entering the war in 1917, the Americans significantly changed the situation in favor of the Entente. President Woodrow Wilson hoped that after the World War, the United States would become the world's arbiter, the moral authority for the rest of the world. Including, for this, according to Wilson, it was created.

World War I operations

In the public consciousness, the First World War is associated primarily with trench life, dirty trenches, and senseless slaughter. So it was - starting in the autumn of 1914, after the unsuccessful march of the Kaiser’s troops to Paris and the “miracle on the Marne”, the front stabilized and snaked from the coast to the Swiss border.

Source: regnum.ru

This line of contact will remain virtually unchanged until 1918. The warring parties tried to change the current stalemate, but the strategic effect of the operations was negligible, and the loss of life was unprecedented. Old Europe has never seen such bloodshed before. [Collection: Operations of the First World War]

In 1915, the Allies tried to break through the front at Artois and Ypres, but the front line remained virtually unchanged. The losses were enormous: during the autumn operation in Artois and Champagne, the sides lost about 350 thousand people killed and wounded.

The year 1916 was marked by two major operations, the names of which became household names. This is the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. In both battles, the sides lost a total of about two million people killed and wounded. The Somme and Verdun remain examples of enormous human tragedy and the senselessness of war.

In 1917, the United States entered the war, and the strategic situation changed in favor of the Entente. The Allies were now concentrating their forces for a decisive blow against the Central Powers and switched to secondary theaters of war. Realizing that time was working in the enemy's favor, Germany launched a powerful offensive on the Western Front in 1918. The Kaiser's troops achieved major successes, but due to the lack of reserves and limited material resources, victory turned into defeat. In August, the Entente launched a counter-offensive, which ended with the signing on November 11, 1918.

Military operations took place all over the world. Military blocs collided in the vastness of the Middle East, in the Alps on the Italian front, carried out raids in African colonies, and acted against each other’s sea communications. But the fate of the war was decided on the fields of Flanders and Artois, near Ypres and among the forts of Verdun.

Russia in World War I

In August 1914, the Russian Empire had not yet managed to implement the program for modernizing the army and navy. The tsarist army has not waged major wars since the clash with. Strength there was a quantity - the government was able to mobilize more than 5 million people, in peacetime 1.5 million served in the army. [Collection: Russia in the First World War]

For comparison, Germany had less than a million soldiers and officers in peacetime; after mobilization, this number increased by almost 4 million people.

In August 1914, the Russian army launched an offensive in East Prussia, responding to the call of France. Initial success gave way to the defeat of Samsonov's army in the Masurian swamps in September. Russian troops retreated to their original positions.

During the autumn months, the German command made attempts to eliminate the so-called “Polish salient” - the Russian Kingdom of Poland. The army was forced to abandon Western Poland, but at the same time carried out successful offensives in Austrian Galicia and Bukovina.

In winter, as a result of the Sarakamysh operation on the Caucasian front, Russian troops stopped the Turkish advance and entered the territory Ottoman Empire. The Caucasian theater of military operations remained the most successful for Russia throughout the war.

The next year, 1915, the German command planned to withdraw Russia from the war. The “great retreat” of the Russian army began. The troops suffered heavy losses, and the German offensives greatly affected the mood of soldiers and officers. Russia lost its conquests in Galicia and Bukovina and was forced to leave Poland, part of the Baltic states and Belarus. However, she remained in the war.

In 1916, the Allies tried to break German resistance. The Brusilov breakthrough, organized in the summer of 1916, became an important link in the Somma-Verdun-Isonzo chain. The Russians advanced 100 kilometers behind the front line, forcing Germany to transfer reserves to patch up holes. But the success turned out to be local.

In 1917, against the backdrop of the revolution, the Russian army began to disintegrate, and cases of desertion and fraternization became more frequent. The July operation, the so-called “Kerensky offensive,” failed miserably. Russia, now Bolshevik, withdrew from the war in March 1918, signing the difficult Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Peace of Versailles

The First World War turned out to be the boundary between the golden nineteenth century and the as yet unknown twentieth century. The victorious powers created a new world order, and the Treaty of Versailles was to become one of its most important pillars. , now a republic, faced a difficult test on the sidelines of the Paris Peace Conference. [Collection: Peace of Versailles]

Discussions about the future of the losing country took many months. The allies could not come to a common denominator - there was too much important issues related to Germany and the need to prevent a similar military conflict in the future. As a result of difficult disputes, by June an agreed upon version of the peace agreement was developed, which was signed on July 28, 1919 (the day of the assassination of the Archduke) in the Palace of Versailles. Ratification took place in early 1920.