Which states of the eastern Mediterranean were conquered by Rome? Western Mediterranean in the 3rd century. BC e. Conquest of Italy by Rome. History of wars at sea

Having broken the mighty Carthaginian power and becoming the master of the Western Mediterranean, Rome turned its gaze to the east. After the weakening of Hellenistic Egypt, two Hellenistic states claimed a dominant position in the Eastern Mediterranean: Macedonia, led by the king Philip V and the Syrian kingdom, the Seleucid state, ruled by Antiochus III. The actions of Philip, who captured several Greek independent cities, prompted his main opponents - the island of Rhodes and the Kingdom of Pergamon - to seek help from Rome. Their embassy, ​​sent to Rome, met there with a warm welcome, and, although the Second Punic War (201 BC) had just ended, the Senate decided to enter the war with Macedonia. There were several reasons for this decision: firstly, Rome was not at all interested in strengthening Macedonia; in addition, the Romans had their own special scores to settle with Philip V. Enmity between Rome and Macedonia began with the Illyrian Wars. During the Second Punic War, Philip entered into an alliance with Hannibal and fought from 216 BC. e. hostilities at sea against Rome off the coast of Illyria - the so-called First Macedonian War (216-205 BC)

The Second Macedonian War began in 200 BC. e. and lasted three years. In 197 BC. e. The Romans defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae (Thessaly). According to the peace treaty, Philip renounced his possessions outside Macedonia and paid indemnity. At the opening of the next Isthmian Games (196 BC) in Corinth, the Roman commander Titus Quinctius Flamininus solemnly proclaimed, on behalf of the Senate and his own, freedom to the Greek cities. This was a step that won the sympathy of Hellas, which was so necessary for Rome in the fight against the Hellenistic states.

The successes of Rome alarmed the Syrian king Antiochus III, who in 192 BC. e. landed with an army in Thessaly (Syrian War). He hoped for the support of the Greek cities, because their “honeymoon” with Rome turned out to be quite fleeting: by interfering in the internal affairs of Hellas, Rome alienated some policies. However, almost all the Greeks (with the exception of the Aetolian League) remained loyal to Rome. In 191 BC. e. Antiochus was defeated at Thermopylae and was forced to leave Greece. The war was transferred to Asia Minor. At the end of 190 (or in 189 BC) a general battle took place near the city of Magnesia. The Roman army was commanded by Hannibal's conqueror Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. Antiochus suffered a crushing defeat. The Syrian possessions in Europe and Asia Minor were divided between Pergamum and Rhodes, allies of Rome.

After a short respite, the Roman Senate, concerned about the hostile intrigues of the new Macedonian king Perseus, announced in 171 BC. e. a new, third war in Macedonia. In 168 BC. e. newly appointed commander Lucius Aemilius Paulus(the son of the consul who died at Cannae) inflicted a decisive defeat on Perseus at the Battle of Pydna. This Roman victory marked the end of the Macedonian kingdom. The country was divided into four independent regions, and in 148 BC. e. after the unsuccessful anti-Roman uprising of False Philip (Andrisk), Macedonia was turned into a province. The uprising of some Greek cities that tried to free themselves from Roman dictatorship ended just as pitifully. The Greeks were defeated at the Battle of Isthmus, and in 146 BC. e. Consul Lucius Memmius, commander of the Roman army, entered rebellious Corinth. The city was destroyed to the ground, and the inhabitants were sold into slavery. Most of Greece was annexed to the Macedonian province 1; From conquered Hellas, looted works of art poured into Rome in a wide stream.

The time has come to finally put an end to the ancient enemy and competitor Carthage, which by the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. fully recovered from defeat in the Second Punic War. The flourishing state of the city haunted the famous Roman politician Marcus Porcius Cato, who visited the city in 153 BC. e. as head of the Roman embassy. Cato, who in matters of morality and everyday life was a zealot of antiquity and the “morals of his ancestors,” and in foreign policy was a supporter of expansion, elimination of competitors in international trade, etc., since then he ended every speech in the Senate with the phrase: “However, I I believe that Carthage must be destroyed" (Ceterum censeo Carthaginem delendam essay). In 149 BC. e., taking advantage of the troubles in relations between Carthage and the Roman ally, the king of Numidia Masinissa, the Senate declared war on Carthage. The Third Punic War began (149-146 BC).

The Roman army, having landed in Africa, unsuccessfully besieged Carthage for two years, until in 147 BC. e. no consul was placed at the head of the army Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. Arriving at Carthage, the commander first of all restored discipline, expelling merchants, women and outsiders from the army. A dam was built at the entrance to the Carthaginian harbor to cut off the city from the sea and cut off all communication with the outside world. Famine and disease began in besieged Carthage, and in the spring of 146 BC. e. after a six-day assault the city fell. According to the decision of the Senate, where the irreconcilable followers of Cato, who had died shortly before, won, Carthage should have been razed to the ground, consigning the place on which it stood to eternal damnation. Scipio, although he did not approve of such extremes, carried out the order with discipline. The possessions of Carthage were turned into the Roman province of Africa.

Another province was the former kingdom of Pergamon, inherited by Rome according to the will of the man who died in 133 BC. e. King Attalus. In the same year, Scipio Aemilian suppressed the uprising in two Spanish provinces created after the Second Punic War: Near and Far Spain (Numantine War, the center of the uprising was the city of Numantia).

Thus, as a result of successful wars of conquest, Rome in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. became the most powerful and extensive state in the Mediterranean. These conquests not only redrew the world map, but also led to major changes in the cultural, social and economic life of Rome and Italy.

• 2 Officially, the army was commanded by his brother, proconsul Lucius Cornelius Scipio, but in fact Scipio Africanus exercised command.
• Subsequently, Greece was turned into a special province of Achaia.
• Publius Scipio, the son of Scipio Africanus, adopted the son of his friend, the famous commander, winner of Macedonia at the Battle of Pydna (168 BC), Lucius Emilius Paulus. Thus, Scipio Aemilianus was the grandson of Scipio Africanus by adoption and the natural grandson of the consul Aemilius Paulus who died at Cannes.

Repeating and generalizing lesson on the topic

"Rome - conqueror of the Mediterranean."

Lesson form : summary lesson on the topic “Rome, the conqueror of the Mediterranean”

Academic subject : story

Methodological objectives of the lesson:

consolidate and systematize students’ knowledge of the history of Ancient Rome;

To intensify the cognitive activity of students in the study of history;

Fix concepts, definitions, terms, events, phenomena, facts, chronology;

Contribute to the development of skills in working with maps and documents;

promote the development of attention, reaction to situational situations, ----- development of the ability to formulate and specify answers to questions;

Progress of the lesson.

Plan:

Motivation.

Main part.

Reflection.

MOTIVATION: Teacher's word: guys, for several lessons we have been studying the topic “ROME THE CONQUEROR OF THE MEDITERRANEAN”. And today we will repeat and summarize the material on this topic and do this with the help of a quiz. But first I would like to tell you a little parable.

They say that on the day that Alexander the Great became ruler of the world, he locked himself in a room and cried.

His commanders were worried. What's happened? They had never seen him cry. He was not that kind of person. They were with him in different situations: when life was in great danger, when death was very close, but no one noticed traces of despair and hopelessness on his face. He was an example of courage. What happened to him now, now that he has won, now that the world has been conquered?

They knocked, entered and asked:

- What happened, why are you crying?

He replied:

- Now that I had won, I realized that I had lost. Now I am in the same place where I was when I started this senseless conquest of the world. This only became clear to me now, because before I was on a journey, I had a goal. Now I have nowhere to move, no one to conquer. I feel a terrible emptiness inside me. I lost.

Rome also had a goal - to conquer power and power in the Mediterranean. Submitting to this goal, he collided with the interests of Carthage, which for many years became the main enemy of Rome. Carthage was called a thorn in the side of Ancient Rome. When Rome finally managed to raze the fortress to the ground, it found peace, but became lifeless and fell into decay.

But that’s a completely different story, but for now Rome is strong and seeks to demonstrate its strength to the whole world. Today we must remember how he did this.

MAIN PART OF THE LESSON. Conducting a quiz.

DIE IS CAST

So. There is handout material on your desk. Words are printed on sheet No. 1. (SLIDE 2) Your task now is to group these words according to their meaning and highlight among them the key word for each group.

First, we check the keywords that we highlighted (Carthage, Legion, Province). Then the one who named the keyword correctly names the words included in this group. (SLIDES 4,5,6)

Conclusion: please tell me how all these words are related to our topic today?

The teacher’s word: as you understand, the development of any state, its policies, both internal and external, are always determined by those people who are in power. It is in their hands that the full power that determines the fate of states lies. Of course, there were such individuals in the period we are considering. Now I suggest you, based on an excerpt from the document, determine who we are talking about and what made him famous in this era of conquest? Take handout No. 2

3. HISTORY IN PERSONS.

While this man was alive, the Romans knew no peace. They considered him a fire that could always be fanned. This great commander suffered only one defeat, after which he had to leave his homeland. After many years of wandering, he became an adviser to the king of a small state. The Romans demanded that the king hand over the commander. Fearing the Romans, the king agreed. Not wanting to become a prisoner, this courageous man took poison, saying: “Let us remove the heavy burden from the shoulders of the Romans, who cannot wait for the death of the old man they hate.” Who is this man and why were the Romans so afraid of him? (Hannibal)

– It was at the call of this Roman senator that Carthage was destroyed. He ended every speech in the Senate with the words: “Still, I believe that Carthage must be destroyed.” (Cato).

He made vows to the gods, since, in his opinion, the reason for the previous defeat was primarily the commander’s disrespect for religion. He did not enter into battle with Hannibal, but, occupying the heights, followed him at such a distance so as not to be drawn into battle against his will and at the same time not to lose sight of the enemy, keep him on alert and prevent him from obtaining provisions.( Fabius Maxim)

In the spring of 204, this commander departed for the shores(now Sugh al-Khamis in. For this he received the honorary name “African” (SCIPIO).

The teacher’s word: we have decided on the personalities, now our task is to restore historical justice. On the handout sheets under No. 3 there is a text containing historical errors. Your task is to find them and give the correct answer.

4. WE ARE NOT FRIENDS WITH MISTAKES

(the Romans enslaved the inhabitants of the provinces; the governors plundered the provinces, raised taxes and took the best lands)

(Carthage opposed Rome’s attempts to conquer the Mediterranean; the Macedonian kingdom by that time no longer owned the Eastern Mediterranean; the Macedonian kingdom never owned part of Spain and the islands in the Western Mediterranean)

(Hannibal is a Carthaginian commander who, as a nine-year-old boy, swore an oath that he would always be an enemy of the Romans. Hannibal decided to attack first, without waiting for the Romans to strike. Coming out of Spain, five months later he approached the Alps. Having crossed the Alps, he found himself in the valley of the Po River Hannibal never visited Sicily or Rome.)

REFLECTION.

So, what conclusion can be drawn about the outcome of the Punic Wars for Rome and its rivals?

Now I invite each of you to express your attitude to the events we were talking about today in the form of a syncwine.

HANDOUT #2

READ THE PASSAGE AND NAME THE PERSON IT IS ABOUT

1. While this man was alive, the Romans knew no peace. They considered him a fire that could always be fanned. This great commander suffered only one defeat, after which he had to leave his homeland. After many years of wandering, he became an adviser to the king of a small state. The Romans demanded that the king hand over the commander. Fearing the Romans, the king agreed. Not wanting to become a prisoner, this courageous man took poison, saying: “Let us remove the heavy burden from the shoulders of the Romans, who cannot wait for the death of the old man they hate.” Who is this man and why were the Romans so afraid of him?

2. It was at the call of this Roman senator that Carthage was destroyed. He ended every speech in the Senate with the words: “Still, I believe that Carthage must be destroyed.”

3. Lethargy and slowness affected him already in childhood; learning was difficult for him. His first major military success was the victory over the Ligurians, for which he received a triumph. When it started a few years later, after the first defeats of the Romans, even before the Battle of Trasimene, he advised avoiding battles with, guard the cities and wait for Hannibal's army to melt away by itself. After the Battle of Trasimene he received a dictatorship. He began with religious ceremonies, addressed, made vows to the gods, since, in his opinion, the reason for the previous defeat was primarily the commander’s disrespect for religion. He did not enter into battle with Hannibal, but, occupying the heights, followed him at such a distance so as not to be drawn into battle against his will and at the same time not to lose sight of the enemy, keep him on alert and prevent him from obtaining provisions.

4. In the spring of 204, this commander departed for the shoreswith two legions of veterans (about 30 thousand people), with 40 military and 400 transport ships and, without meeting the slightest resistance, safely landed on Cape Beautiful near.. In 203 the battle was fought at(now Sugh al-Khamis in), where the army of this talented Roman commander crushed the Carthaginians with double coverage from the flanks. In response to the cessation of hostilities, he demanded Spanish possessions and the Mediterranean islands, the release of the entire military fleet except 20 ships and the payment of a military indemnity of 4 thousand talents. The Carthaginians accepted the terms. In 202, a turning point came in the war - Hannibal was defeated at, a year later, 7 ultimatum demands were presented to Carthage. Upon returning to Rome, this commander celebrated a grandiose triumph, which marked the actual completion of. For this he received the honorary name "African".

Handout #3

WE ARE NOT FRIENDS WITH MISTAKES

Every task contains errors. We need to find them and give the correct answer.

Having conquered this or that country, the Romans declared it a province, and its inhabitants were endowed with the rights of Roman citizens. The governors who ruled the provinces did everything to make life easier for the local population: they reduced taxes and distributed land. Slavery was abolished in the territory conquered by Rome.

Having subjugated Italy, the Romans began to strive to conquer the entire Mediterranean. Their attempts were opposed by the Macedonian kingdom, which by that time controlled the Eastern Mediterranean, as well as part of Spain and islands in the Western Mediterranean. The Roman Senate developed the following plan: one consular army was sent to Spain, and the other to Africa.

in 218 BC The Carthaginian commander Hannibal decided to pay a friendly visit to Rome at the invitation of the then reigning king. Having crossed the Mediterranean Sea, he visited Sicily, and then arrived in Rome.

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

Slavery

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

Slavery

____________________________________________________

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

1. By what principle are the rows formed? a) 882, 912, 945, 964, 980; b) 860, 907, 941, 944 2. Which of the following couples were contemporaries? a) Prince

Oleg and Askold; b) Prince Igor and Yaroslav the Wise; c) Prince Yaropolk and Rogneda; d) Svyatopolk the Accursed and Vladimir Monomakh; e) Genghis Khan and Yuri Dolgoruky; f) Alexander Nevsky and Batu. 3. In connection with the death of which great prince, the inscription “our king” was made on the wall of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv? a) Igor the Old; b) Vladimir the Holy; c) Yaroslav the Wise; d) Vladimir Monomakh. 4. Arrange the following events in chronological order: a) the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus; b) the congress of princes in Lyubech; c) the introduction of “lessons and churchyards”; d) the creation of Yaroslav’s “Truth”; e) the creation of “The Tale of Igor’s Host” . 5. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote around 948: “When the month of November comes, their princes immediately go out with all the Rus and go on a circular detour specifically to the Slavic lands. After feeding there for the whole winter, in April, when the ice on the Dnieper melts, they return to Kyiv again. Then they take their ships...equipped and set off for Byzantium.” Who are these princes and what phenomenon did the Byzantine emperor describe? 6. Determine who we are talking about. His youth was spent in military campaigns that his father carried out against the Polovtsians. Thanks to him, intensive development of the northeastern lands of Rus' began. His name is associated with the mention of “the heart of Russian lands.” Twice he was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Thanks to him, such cities as Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Dubny, Yuryev-Polsky arose. Contemporaries noted his passion for seizing foreign lands and awarded him the appropriate nickname. He was constantly in conflict with his own son and did not want him to inherit his throne. He died in the midst of preparations for a military campaign, which was supposed to at least temporarily stop the princely strife. 7. What royal families of Europe was Yaroslav the Wise associated with? 8. On one of the old books there is a formidable warning: “If any priest or deacon reads this book and does not fasten it, he will be cursed!” Why did the book have to be zipped up? 9. Why does the early period of the formation of the Old Russian state cause so much controversy and disagreement among historians? 10. Famous historian L.N. Gumilyov expressed the opinion that the power of the Mongols over Russia did not represent a cruel yoke, and until the end of the 13th century. was a kind of mutually beneficial alliance. Is it possible, based on the facts known to you, to assess the validity of this assumption?

Palestine.2. What people lived in Palestine? A) Babylonians, B) Sumerians, C) Assyrians, D) Jews.3. In which state was Darius I the ruler? A) Palestine, B) Phenicia, C) Persia, D) Israel.4. In which state did cuneiform appear? A) Egypt, B) Persia, C) Mesopotamia, D) Phenicia.5. Remove the extra word: A) hieroglyph, B) alphabet, C) cuneiform, 6. This is exactly what appeared in Palestine: A) alphabet, B) transparent glass, C) Christianity, D) purple cloth.7. Determine the capital of the Persian state: A) Kadesh, B) Babylon, C) Persepolis, D) Nineveh.8. Find the ruler of Assyria: A) Moses, B) Solomon, C) Hammurabi, D) Ashurbanal.9. Determine what event occurred in the 8th century BC? A) the capture of Babylon, B) the development of iron, C) the emergence of Mesopotamia, D) the formation of the Assyrian state.10. Which state was called the “kingdom of countries”? A) Israel, B) Palestine, C) Assyrian power, D) Persian power.11. In 1792-1750 BC. ruled by the king: A) Ashurbanipal, B) Hammurabi, C) Solomon, D) Darius I.12. Which state was first located on the shores of the Persian Gulf, and then occupied all of Western Asia? A) Israel, B) Palestine, C) Assyrian power, D) Persian power.13. What three states did the Assyrian state break up into? A) Lydia, Media, Babylon, B) Syria, Palestine, Phenicia, C) Urartu, Assyria, Persia.14. On the bank of which river is Jerusalem located? A) Tigris, B) Euphrates, C) Jordan, D) Nile.15. The main occupations of the Phoenicians: A) trade, B) cattle breeding, C) navigation, D) agriculture.16. Write about which state you are talking about: “The king in Babylonia was once powerful and famous. He protected his subjects from slavery. He established royal laws”17. The main sea of ​​Western Asia: A) Mediterranean, B) Baltic, C) Azov.18. What cities were part of Phenicia? A) Sidon, Byblos, Tire, B) Kish, Nippur, Babylon, C) Kadesh, Arvad, Damascus.19. Which states were located on the shores of the Persian Gulf? A) Palestine, B) Babylon, C) Persia, D) Syria.20. In what year did Cambyses II conquer Egypt? A) 538 BC, B) 612 BC, C) 525 BC.

2) the formation of a military-political alliance of Western countries under the auspices of the United States;

3) placement of American military bases near the borders with the USSR;

4) support for internal opposition in Eastern European countries;

5) conclusion of a comprehensive treaty between the USA and the USSR in order to prevent a new world war;

6) allowing the use of military force against the USSR and its allies.

Task 2.

We understand that the Russians must feel secure on their western borders against any resumption of German aggression. we welcome Russia to take its rightful place among the leading nations of the world...However, my duty is to present the situation in Europe. From Stettin on the Baltic to Trieste on the Adriatic, the Iron Curtain descended across the continent. Behind this line are stored all the treasures of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest, Sofia - all these famous cities and the population in their areas are in the Soviet sphere and are all subject to... not only Soviet influence, but also to a large extent the increasing control of Moscow...

The Communist parties, which were very insignificant in all these eastern states of Europe, have achieved exceptional power, far superior to their numbers, and are seeking to establish totalitarian control everywhere. police governments prevail in almost all these countries and to this day, with the exception of Czechoslovakia, no real democracy exists in them. Türkiye and Persia are deeply delighted and concerned about the claims made by the Moscow government...

In the vast majority of countries located far from Russian borders and scattered throughout the world, communist “fifth columns” have been created, which act in complete unity and absolute obedience to the instructions received from the communist center... I do not believe that Soviet Russia wants war . She wants the fruits of war and the unlimited spread of her power and her doctrines...

Our old doctrine of balance is untenable.

We cannot afford to rely on a slight superiority in strength, thereby creating a temptation to test our strength...

[Prevention of war] can only be ensured if, at the present time, in 1946, a complete understanding is reached with Russia on all issues under the general leadership of the United Nations.

1. Do you think Churchill and other Western politicians had reasons not to trust the Soviet leadership after the end of the war? Why?

2. Can you find motives for a real threat against the USSR in Churchill’s speech?

3. Do you agree with Stalin’s assessments of Churchill’s speech in Fulton? Why?

Task 3.

CROSS OUT THE EXCELLENT AND BRIEFLY EXPLAIN WHY.

Basic principles and directions of USSR foreign policy after the end of World War II:

1) expansion of spheres of influence in the world;

2) gaining the status of a world power;

3) expansion of military presence in the countries of South-Eastern Europe and Asia;

4) strengthening the position of the world communist movement in Western countries;

5) a course towards rapprochement and cooperation between the USSR and the West;

6) the desire to avoid world war;

7) all possible assistance to national liberation movements;

8) course towards disarmament;

9) peaceful coexistence;

10) development of allied relations with the USA, England and France;

11) development of equal cooperation between the USSR and people's democracies.

Task 4. Answer the question in writing: What new appeared in the foreign policy of the USSR after the war?

Don't pass by: (Help answer the questions... 1) Which states led the Paris Peace Conference? 2) What organization appeared after

The First World War to resolve international relations? 3) For what purposes was the League of Nations created? Under what circumstances were its actions effective? 3) Name the states that joined the League of Nations later 5) Why was the League of Nations unable to prevent the war or stop it?

If in the 5th and even in the 4th century. BC e. The Western Mediterranean knot of contradictions was determined, first of all, by the ongoing struggle between Carthage and the Western Hellenes, then in the 3rd century. A new force appears on the Mediterranean scene - the growing Roman state. The course of events and the general trend of historical development led to the fact that in the 3rd century. The basic prerequisites are already taking shape for the transformation of Rome into the largest Mediterranean power.

Great cities of Magna Graecia. Power of Agatholk

By the time Rome appeared on the international stage, the flourishing time of the Italian cities of Magna Graecia had long since passed. They were weakened by a long internecine struggle, which resulted in increasing pressure on these cities from local southern Italian tribes. Back in 421 BC. e. Kuma fell under the onslaught of the Campanians, and at the beginning of the 4th century. Posidonia, Pina and Laus passed into the hands of the Lucanians. By the 3rd century. on the west coast only Velia (Elea) and Rhegium retained their independence. On the eastern coast of Italy, the large trading city of Tarentum retained its independent position, but even since the collapse of the Syracusan state, it could barely restrain the pressure of its neighbors - the Lucanians and Messapians.

In Sicily at the end of the 4th century. Syracuse once again attempted to unite the cities of Magna Graecia under its rule and create a power capable of rivaling Carthage in dominance over the Western Mediterranean. This happened during the period of Agathocles' tyranny.

The career of Agathocles, who from a simple potter became the “king of the Sicilians,” indicates that he was a far from ordinary person. Having established himself as a capable military leader, he subsequently gained wide popularity among the poor citizens of Syracuse, promising to satisfy their long-standing demands for the redistribution of land and the cancellation of debt obligations. Obviously, Agathocles' main support was mercenaries and the poorest, proletarianized sections of the population. His growing influence and extreme activity made him dangerous in the eyes of the oligarchic government of Syracuse, as a result of which he was forced into exile.

However, Agathocles soon managed not only to recruit a mercenary detachment, but also to rely on a significant number of his followers in Sicily itself. In 316, Agathocles' detachment broke into Syracuse. With the support of broad sections of the population, the oligarchic government was overthrown, and many representatives of oligarchic circles paid with their lives and property. After this, a popular assembly was convened, at which Agathocles swore an oath to observe the existing state structure and was elected strategist-autocrat.

Agathocles managed not only to restore, but also to expand territorially the great power of Dionysius. Most of the cities of Hellenic Sicily recognized the supremacy of Syracuse; the remaining Hellenic cities, such as Akragant, Gela, Messana, first fought against Agathocles in alliance with Syracusan emigrants, but by 313 they were forced to submit to his authority.

The fight against Carthage, which had already become a traditional feature of the foreign policy of the Syracusan tyrants, was initially unsuccessful for Agathocles: in the Battle of Eknome, the Carthaginians won a decisive victory over the troops of Agathocles. Syracuse was under siege. But Agathocles, with a bold military maneuver, prevented the enemy from using the success achieved and paralyzed his forces in Sipilia: in 310, he landed on the African coast with 14 thousand mercenaries, took Hadrumet, and in 307, one of the largest cities on the African coast - Utica . The capital of the Carthaginians, in turn, was under threat. However, these successful actions of Agathocles in Africa were interrupted by unexpected events.

In Sicily, an uprising broke out in a number of cities subject to Agathocles, led by Akragant. Agathocles found himself in a very difficult position, because he was unable to conduct military operations simultaneously in Africa and against the rebels in Sicily. Leaving the army in Africa to its fate (it soon surrendered to the Carthaginians), Agathocles returned to Sicily. Here he managed, after a rather long struggle, which went on with varying success, to suppress the uprising, and according to the peace treaty of 305, Syracuse again became the hegemon of the entire part of Sicily that did not belong to Carthage. Apparently, at this time Agathocles took the title of "King of the Sicilians." This political gesture is undoubtedly connected with events in the Eastern Mediterranean, where around the same time the diadochi who divided Alexander's empire among themselves assumed royal titles.

Having not brought the war against Carthage to a victorious end, around 300 Agathocles, under the pretext of helping Tarentum, begins to fight the Italian tribes, conducting military operations in the southwest of the Apennine Peninsula against the Bruttians. After the death of Agathocles (289), his vast but internally fragile state quickly collapsed, and this time forever.

Another Western state, which had greater capabilities than the Sicilian power and its rival Carthage, namely Rome, succeeded in creating an empire of world significance.

War of the Romans with Pyrrhus

After the Samnite Wars and the conquest of Central Italy, the Romans came into direct contact with the Greek cities of Southern Italy. Weakened by the fierce struggle between various factions of citizens, Greek cities were not able to overcome acute contradictions in their relationships with each other.

In the 80s, the Lucanians attacked the Greek city of Thurii. Unwilling to turn to their rival Tarentum for help, the Furies asked the Romans for support.

Rome was well aware that the support of the Furies would make it possible to extend Roman influence to other cities in Southern Italy. Therefore, an army was sent to help the Furies, which defeated the Lucans and drove them away from the city. After this, a Roman garrison was left in Thurii. However, this turn of events caused great anxiety and discontent in Tarentum. The Tarentines attacked the Roman warships that entered their harbor, and then moved to the Furies and, relying on a group of citizens friendly to them, expelled the Roman garrison from there. As a result of these events, war broke out between Rome and Tarentum.

Although Tarentum had fairly large military forces and the Lucans and Messapians joined it as allies, the very first battles showed the unconditional superiority of the Romans. The Tarentines turned for help to the Epirus king Pyrrhus, who very willingly responded to their call.

In the person of Pyrrhus, the Romans had to face one of the most brilliant commanders of the Hellenistic era. Even in his youth, he discovered such aptitude for military affairs that when one of the associates of Alexander the Great was asked who was now the most outstanding commander, he answered: “Pyrrhus, when his mature age comes.” Subsequently, the great commander of antiquity Hannibal assigned Pyrrhus second place after Alexander the Great, and himself only third.

But if Pyrrhus was an outstanding commander, then as a political figure he should not be rated too highly. His extensive plans bore the stamp of insufficient thought and adventurism, his military talents were not complemented by the foresight of a cautious and mature politician. That's what happened this time too. Pyrrhus seized on the offer of the Tarentines, but his ambitious calculations extended further - the idea of ​​​​creating a great monarchy in the West arose before him, to replace the collapsed eastern power of Alexander.

In the spring of 280, Pyrrhus landed in Italy. His army consisted of 22 thousand well-trained infantry, 3 thousand Thessalian horsemen and 20 war elephants, the use of which was borrowed by the Greeks from the East. Pyrrhus's first clash with the Romans took place near the city of Heraclea. The battle was extremely stubborn. The outcome of the battle was decided by the elephants and the Thessalian cavalry of Pyrrhus; as a result of the defeat, the Romans lost Lucania, and the Bruttii, Lucanians, Samnites and almost all southern Greek cities (with the exception of Capua and Naples) went over to the side of their enemies.

In the spring of 279, Pyrrhus launched a new attack on Apulia, where the Romans concentrated an army of up to 70 thousand people. The second major battle of this war took place near the city of Auskula. The Romans were again defeated, but Pyrrhus' victory came at a high price ("Pyrrhic victory"). His losses were so great that, accepting congratulations, he, according to legend, replied: “Another such victory, and I will have no one to return to Epirus with.” And indeed, despite the victories won in two major battles, Pyrrhus’s position in Italy became extremely difficult. Roman manpower was far from exhausted. The Latin allies remained loyal to Rome. In Tarentum and other southern Italian cities, discontent grew against Pyrrhus. At this time, an embassy from Sicily arrived at Pyrrhus: Syracuse, pressed by the Carthaginians, turned to him with a request for help. The war in Italy was clearly dragging on and requiring new efforts and resources.

Under the influence of all these circumstances, Pyrrhus began peace negotiations with Rome. The peace terms were apparently quite favorable for the Romans, however, the Senate rejected them, since the Carthaginians, interested in keeping Pyrrhus in Italy and preventing him from crossing into Sicily, offered Rome an alliance and military assistance. Based on this alliance, the Roman government could decide to continue the war.

However, Pyrrhus, hoping to achieve success in Sicily with less effort, left Italy in 278 and went with troops to help the Syracusans, leaving only garrisons in Tarentum and Locri. In Sicily, Pyrrhus first achieved great success. Pressing and defeating the Carthaginians everywhere, he advanced to the southwestern tip of Sicily; The Carthaginians held only Lilybaeum. Pyrrhus had already begun to prepare a fleet to transport troops to Africa, but then serious complications began in his relations with the Greek cities. Disregarding local democratic traditions, Pyrrhus rudely interfered in the internal life of Greek cities, arbitrarily imposed all kinds of taxes, etc. As a result of this, some of the cities took up arms against him, others even went over to the side of the Carthaginians. They did not fail to take advantage of these complications behind enemy lines; A large Carthaginian army reappeared in Sicily. The successes achieved by Pyrrhus were nullified: only Syracuse remained in his hands.

Thus, Pyrrhus faced the fact of the complete collapse of all his plans in Sicily. Meanwhile, alarming news came to him from Italy that the Romans, not meeting the previous resistance, had gone on the offensive. With the help of Romanophile-minded oligarchic groups in Croton and Locri, they managed to take possession of these two cities. At the same time, not without success, they began to act against the Samnites and Lucans. All this forced the Greeks and Italians who were still on Pyrrhus’ side to turn to him with an urgent call for help. Then Pyrrhus left Sicily, where everything was already lost for him, and returned to Italy. On the way back in the strait, he was attacked by the Carthaginian fleet and destroyed more than half of the ships. Nevertheless, in the spring of 275, Pyrrhus landed in Italy and began to prepare for new offensive actions against the Romans.

The decisive battle took place in the same year near the city of Beneventa, in the center of Samnium. Pyrrhus suffered a complete defeat, his camp was captured, and he himself fled to Tarentum. Soon after this battle he left Italy, and three years later he died in Argos during a street fight.

The victory of Rome over Pyrrhus was the victory of a peasant country with its citizen militia over an army of mercenaries, well armed and led by a talented commander, but involved in a hopeless military adventure. This victory made it easier for Rome to conquer southern Italy. In 272, the Romans besieged and took Tarentum. About five years later, Rome broke the resistance of the remaining tribes that still retained their independence. Thus, all of Italy, from the Strait of Messa to the Rubicon River on the border with Cisalpine Gaul, came under Roman rule. Rome became one of the largest states in the Western Mediterranean.

Rome after the conquest of Italy. Economy

Available sources, unfortunately, do not make it possible to form a sufficiently clear idea of ​​the development of productive forces in Italy in the 5th-3rd centuries. The evolution of agricultural technology is also extremely difficult to establish, but it is unlikely to have been significant in the early centuries of the republic. We know from the Roman writer and agronomist Varro that from about the middle of the 5th century. The Romans begin to cultivate new crops: wheat and spelt. Obviously, by this time they already had a compound plow. Cattle breeding (with the exception of Southern Italy) was slightly developed; Cattle were mainly used for draft purposes. The fields of large landowners were cultivated using the labor of clients and slaves, although the number of the latter on individual farms was still very small.

There is also no doubt about the further growth of the craft. The restoration of Rome after the Gallic invasion in itself presupposed the development of construction activities. The city is gradually losing its rustic appearance: streets are being paved, central squares are decorated with statues, and the market area is surrounded by stone galleries. From the end of the 4th century. Intensive construction of public buildings, mainly churches, is underway. Roman architecture brings to full development the arched ceiling system borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. In buildings of the 4th century. we already meet the stone vault.

The growth of trade and commodity-money relations among the Romans is evidenced by the minting of coins. First, the Roman coin (as), which appeared in the middle of the 4th century. BC e., was copper, but then, after the victory over Pyrrhus, silver coinage (drachma, denarius) began in Rome itself, and from the end of the 3rd century. and a gold coin. The penetration of the Romans into Southern Italy led to increased exchange and strengthening of trade ties between Rome and wealthy Greek cities. From the 3rd century. In Rome, commercial and usurious capital begins to take shape.

However, agriculture continued to be the basis of the Roman economy. Rome's subjugation of Southern Italy led to the spread of Roman agrarian relations to most of the peninsula. This was facilitated by the intensive colonization policy of the Romans, through which they sought, on the one hand, to solve the agrarian problem, that is, to satisfy the peasants' need for land, and on the other hand, to strengthen the rule of Rome in the most remote areas of the country. Therefore, some colonies were predominantly military in nature and were located in coastal or border areas (for example, Antium, Tarracina, Minturni, Sinuessa, etc.), and the colonists, as a rule, received relatively small land plots here. Colonies of a slightly different type (Fregella, Luceria, Arimin, etc.) were established mainly in the interior regions of the peninsula. They were much more densely populated and had a more pronounced agricultural character. The colonists received relatively large plots of land here. Thanks to colonies of this type, stable middle and small peasant land ownership is spreading in Italy.

In the sphere of the Roman economy, and above all land relations, new processes are developing. Their meaning is that private ownership of land is increasingly replacing communal (state) ownership. The seizure of the public field took place in earlier times, but then it still retained to some extent the nature of the lease of these lands from the state; in the IV and especially in the III century. over time, most of these lands, once “leased” from the state, became the inalienable property of their owners, and representatives of patrician and noble plebeian families now became the hereditary owners of these lands equally. This practice not only favored the concentration of land ownership, but also led to a sharp intensification of the struggle between large and small landowners.

Class structure of Roman society

Slavery in the IV-III centuries. begins to be increasingly introduced into the Roman economy. The number of slaves grew rapidly as a result of almost continuous warfare. The capture and destruction of Veii also gave the Romans a massive supply of slaves; The number of slaves in Rome began to grow especially rapidly since the Samnite wars. The tax on manumission of slaves established in 357 indicates a fairly high level of development of slavery.

Class structure of Roman society IV-III centuries. appears with sufficient clarity. The division of society into free and slaves becomes decisive. The situation of the slaves was extremely difficult; from the point of view of Roman law, a slave was not a person, but a thing, and therefore the master was free over his life and death. All slaves had absolutely no rights, they were all equally excluded from civil and political life.

The free people were not united either in their composition or in their position. The class of large landowners and slave owners was represented in Rome in the 4th-3rd centuries. a privileged group of nobility - the new nobility, formed as a result of the merger of the patrician-plebeian elite. This was the highest class (ordo), which filled the highest magistracy and the ranks of the Senate with its representatives. Of course, it would be wrong to assume that the slave-owning class consisted only of large landowners. There was a significant layer of small and medium-sized slave owners - wealthy peasants, owners of craft workshops, and traders. But they were not included in the privileged class.

Class of free producers in the IV-III centuries. consisted mainly of the mass of rural and urban plebs, i.e. Roman peasants and urban artisans. Formally in the 3rd century. all plebeians in their legal capacity were no different from nobles, but in fact they had no real opportunity to participate in the government of the state and could not play a leading role in its life.

The structure of Roman society in the 3rd century. was also determined by the fact that among the free population there was a significant category of incomplete citizens. These should include libertines, i.e. freedmen who could not be elected magistrates and had limited voting rights (only in tribunal cominia). The so-called Latin citizens, who had property rights, but were deprived of political rights, also belonged to those without full rights. This rather complex structure of Roman slave society was further complicated by the emergence of new classes and new full and partial groups of the population.

State structure

The state structure of the Roman Republic by the 3rd century. also has already taken shape quite clearly. Officially, the Roman people (populus Romanus), i.e., the totality of Roman full-fledged citizens, was considered the bearer of religious power in the republic. The people exercised their rights in the assembly-comitia. In Rome, as already indicated, there were three types of committees: a) curiat (meetings of patricians), which lost all political significance at the beginning of the republic (they were left with the formal delegation of the highest power - the empire - to elected magistrates and the solution of some issues of family law); b) centuriate (meetings of patricians and plebers according to property categories and centuries), which until the end of the republic resolved issues of peace and war and in which elections of senior officials were carried out, and c) tribute (built on a territorial principle), which, after the law of Hortensius, were carried out by the main way of legislative activity. This was the most democratic type of popular assembly in Rome.

However, ordinary participants in the comitia were actually deprived of almost any political initiative. Only magistrates had the right to convene comitia, preside over them and raise issues to be decided. As a rule, there was no discussion of these issues at the comitia, and citizens began voting by centuries or tribes immediately after the lists of candidates were announced or the bill was read out.

The stronghold of the ruling Roman aristocracy (nobility) - the Senate actually turned into the highest state authority. The number of its members ranged from 300 to 600 people, and at the end of the republic it reached 900 people. Senators were appointed by censors from among the former magistrates in order of official hierarchy: first of all, former consuls, then praetors, etc. The right to convene the Senate for meetings and preside over them belonged to the highest magistrates: consuls, dictator, praetors, and subsequently the tribunes of the people. The competence of the Senate was very extensive: approval of elected magistrates, management of state property and finances, issues of peace and war, management of foreign policy, supreme supervision of religious affairs, declaration of emergency powers, etc. In the Senate, there was a thorough discussion of the issues under consideration and then voting on proposals .

The bearers of executive power were the magistrates. Performing the duties of a magistrate was considered the highest honor and was carried out not only free of charge, but in a number of cases was associated with significant expenses from the personal funds of the chosen one. The magistrate is an inviolable person: while he performs his office, he can neither be removed nor brought to justice. Roman magistrates received their powers by election and exercised them collegiately. Election was also associated with very significant expenses for candidates, since long before the elections they, according to custom, were obliged to arrange feasts and treats for their fellow citizens, give them gifts, etc. Thus, although any Roman citizen could apply for election , in fact, it was available only to the wealthiest, belonging to the nobility environment. Magistrates were divided into higher (consul, dictator, praetor, censor, tribune of the people) and lower (all others). In addition, master's programs were divided into ordinary ones, i.e. ordinary or permanent (consuls, tribunes of the people, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors), and extraordinary, i.e. extraordinary (dictator, his assistant - chief of cavalry, triumvirs, decemvirs). The only non-collegiate magistracy was the dictatorship; the only magistrates elected for a term longer than a year were the censors. The priestly colleges - pontiffs, flamines, salii, Arval brothers, etc. - also enjoyed a certain influence in the political life of Rome. The high priests - pontiffs - were elected in the comitia, the rest were elected by their colleges or were appointed pontiffs.

This was the state structure of the Roman Republic in its main features. Later writers (Polybius, Cicero) believed that the Roman Republic embodied the ideal of a mixed state structure, that is, a structure that harmoniously combines elements of monarchy (the power of consuls), aristocracy (Senate) and democracy (Comitia). But they, of course, idealized this system: the Roman state was a typical aristocratic slave-owning republic, which is confirmed by the dominant role of the nobility body - the Senate, the unpaid magistracy and the secondary importance of the comitia.

Administration of conquered Italy

The conquest of Italy by Rome - a long process of gradual growth of the Roman state territory proper, the subjugation of other Italian communities - was imprinted in unique forms. The most characteristic feature in the organization of administration of conquered Italy was the historically established heterogeneity of relations between Rome and the population dependent on it.

First of all, the lands taken by the Romans from their defeated opponents and provided for the use or ownership of their citizens did not form a continuous territory directly adjacent to the original Roman possessions. On the contrary, as mentioned above, the eviction of Roman citizens to foreign lands, in some cases located at a considerable distance from Rome itself, was widely practiced. The so-called “colonies of Roman citizens” were created on these lands. Legally, the inhabitants of such colonies were considered part of the full civilian population of Rome itself. Therefore, these colonies did not have special self-government, but were governed by all-Roman city authorities, in the election of which citizens living in the colonies had to take part. Subsequently, practical inconveniences of this kind, especially noticeable in cases where the colonies were located far from Rome, entailed the provision of internal self-government to some colonies of Roman citizens.

The so-called municipalities were in a slightly different position. These were communities that had long been accepted into the Roman state. Such communities retained the right of internal self-government (their own city magistrates, autonomous courts, etc.), and later their citizens were fully equal in rights to Roman citizens, up to the right to hold a consular position in elections in Rome. Most of the communities of Latium, old Roman allies, who were also included in the Roman tribes, had the rights of municipalities.

A special category was made up of “communities without voting rights.” The free population of these communities, on an equal basis with Roman citizens, enjoyed full legal capacity in the field of property, marriage and other relations, but did not have political rights and could not participate in Roman public assemblies. In the area of ​​internal life, such communities had the right of self-government, but often it was placed under the control of commissioners specially sent from Rome.

The most numerous group was represented by the Roman “allies”. This was the name for communities that formally retained political independence, but were connected with Rome by special contractual relations, which in each individual case determined their position. In some cases, in accordance with the content of the treaty, the allies were obliged to help the Romans only when attacked by enemies, in others they were obliged to participate in all wars waged by Rome, and this second form of relations was, of course, the predominant one. The Allies were deprived of the right to conduct an independent foreign policy. Their military duties consisted of providing a number of foot and horse soldiers determined by agreement or, if the allied city was coastal, in supplying ships, which, like ground forces, were maintained at the expense of the allies. This was, in essence, the main and only duty of the union communities, which was considered as a “tax in blood.” From the troops of each allied community, special allied detachments were formed, which were placed at the disposal of the Roman command and obliged to it full obedience.

The “Latin colonies” were in a position close to the allies, that is, colonies founded by Rome together with the cities of the Latin Union in the territories conquered by Rome. Like the Allies, they enjoyed complete internal autonomy. Residents of these colonies also served during the war not in the legions, but in special allied detachments, but in the event of resettlement to Rome - this was their difference from the allies - they received the full rights of Roman citizens.

Communities conquered by Rome, surrendering without any conditions to the mercy of the winner, lost all autonomy and were governed by commissioners sent from Rome. The population of these communities had a very limited range of rights. Finally, in more rare cases, when a community hostile to Rome was completely defeated, all the land of the local residents became part of the Roman public field, and they themselves were turned into slaves.

With the conquest of Italy, Rome was quite ripe for entering the wide international arena.

In the second half of the 3rd century BC. Rome won a victory over the major slave-holding power, Carthage, in two grueling Punic Wars. As a result of victory in the first war with Carthage, Rome took possession of rich Sicily, which became the first Roman province. Soon Rome, taking advantage of the difficulties of Carthage, captured the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The Second Punic War, in its scale, scope and historical significance, became one of the largest wars of antiquity. The result of this war was the complete dominance of Rome in the Western Mediterranean, and Carthage lost all overseas possessions and all political significance.

After the victory over Carthage, Rome begins to intensify its policy towards the Hellenistic states, directing its greedy gaze to the rich east. During two wars with Macedonia at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. this once powerful state was defeated and deprived of all independence. The Syrian War (192-188) finally undermined the military power of the Seleucids and strengthened Roman influence in the east. In 149-146 BC. The Romans brutally suppressed the anti-Roman movement in Greece. The Achaean League, which led this movement, was defeated, and the center of this movement was Corinth in 146 BC. was completely destroyed by the Romans. At the same time, Rome waged a war to destroy Carthage (Third Punic War 149-146 BC) and the old enemy of Rome, who brought him so many troubles and worries, was also destroyed to the ground, and the place where this once flourishing city was located , plowed, sprinkled with salt and cursed.

Following Macedonia and Greece, Rome inherited another Hellenistic state - Pergamon.

One of the main consequences of the conquests of Rome was the actual creation of the Mediterranean power, which was built by the Romans at first on the principle of dependent states, but soon the Romans realized the need to form a provincial system. This system developed spontaneously, and there were no general legislative provisions in this regard. Each new province was organized according to a special law of the commander who conquered the country. Then a governor (with the rank of proconsul, propraetor or proquestor), usually a former magistrate, was sent from Rome. In a special edict, he proclaimed the basic principles of his rule, which he intended to be guided by. The governor had full military, civil and judicial power and did not bear any responsibility until the end of his term of office (usually 1 year).

By the middle of the 2nd century. BC there were 9 provinces in the Roman Empire, and all of them were considered as “estates of the Roman people” outside Italy. Part of the land was allocated to the Roman colonists, and local communities had to pay a tax to Rome, which was either set as a constant amount or, more often, at 1/10 of the income. In addition, the provinces had the burden of providing for the Roman troops located on their territory, as well as maintaining the Roman governors and their staff. The Romans usually farmed out taxes to members of the wealthy and enterprising equestrian class. The tax farming system involved the payment of taxes to the treasury, after which significantly larger amounts were collected compared to the initial payment. Roman laws always stood on the side of the Romans, so the provincials sometimes experienced very strong oppression and extortion from individuals who came from Rome. It is no coincidence that there was a saying in Rome regarding some Roman governors: “I came to a rich province as a poor man and left a poor province as a rich man.”

Another consequence of the Roman conquests was the establishment of the slave-owning mode of production in classical form. The rapid development of slave relations led to a change in the entire face of civilization, changes in the social structure and political life, the emergence of new urban centers and the flourishing of culture. The latter was greatly facilitated by the Romans’ acquaintance with the achievements of other peoples, and, to their credit, they adopted them wisely - not only for their own benefit, but also for the benefit of the entire ancient world, subconsciously contributing to the creation of a unified ancient culture of the entire Mediterranean.