Scientific work is an informal activity of the state. Institutionalization of political life Political power and its types

During the process of institutionalization, any social relations take shape with established sets of rules, laws and sanctions. This form is called a “social institution,” and all rules and regulations can be formalized both in writing and orally.

Process of institutionalization

Institutionalization implies a change in the form of relations in a community or group in such a way that the spontaneous behavior of members of these formations becomes organized.

The creation and development of such social institutions takes a long time, sometimes centuries. As a result, spontaneous social phenomenon transforms into a full-fledged organized institution, in which all processes are streamlined and there is a clearly structured hierarchy of power.

The process of institutionalization itself takes place in several stages:

• First, certain needs arise in society, the satisfaction of which is possible only through the organization of joint actions;

• The next step is to identify the goals that need to be achieved;
• At the third stage, the behavior of the majority of members of the system is still spontaneous, but the process of creating norms and rules, as well as related procedures, is gradually launched;
• Next begins directly institutionalization, that is, official acceptance and practical application formed procedures, rules, laws and norms.

At the final stage, they are determined, and between all members of the newly formed social institution their roles are finally distributed and established.

Signs of institutionalization

In the process of creating a social institution, not only vault certain rules and norms, but also its own ideology, certain traditions and rituals appear, in most cases certain symbolism is introduced.

But the basis of a social institution consists, first of all, of its leaders, who perform important organizational and business functions, a complex of institutions, as well as tools and instruments of activity with the help of which members of the institutionalized group can perform their functions and responsibilities.

The main signs of institutionalization are:

• Changing the quality of the activities of group members: as part of an institute, such activities acquire a not only meaningful and orderly character, but also become professional;
• Distribution of roles in society and the emergence of hierarchy;
• The emergence of moral and legal norms of regulation;
• The emergence of special objects, buildings and institutions necessary for the activities of members of the institute;
• The presence of an ideology, which is characterized as a system of ideas that do not contradict and support the moral and legal foundations of a particular institution.

Functions of social institutions

Regardless of what sphere or area an institution belongs to, it always has not only its own specific characteristics and characteristics, but also certain patterns of behavior characteristic of institutionalization as a whole. Any institution can reflect a wide variety of social relations - from politics and economics to family and religion. However, everyone the institute always performs five main functions:

• The function of consolidating and reproducing social relations;
• Communicative;
• Integrative;
• Regulatory;
• Broadcasting.

For consolidation and reproduction of social relations in every The institute has its own tools: these are the rules and regulations that govern the behavior of all participants. This function plays an important role as it ensures the stability of the entire system.

Communication function is necessary to ensure the regulation of relationships between the members of a social institution themselves, and for this purpose certain patterns and patterns of behavior and communication are always developed. This same function facilitates the acquisition of external information, since a social institution is an open structure, and its members are interested in knowledge about what is happening in other similar systems.

Integrative function contributes to maintaining the integrity of the institute itself and strengthening the connection between members of the entire team. Within the framework of this function, there is a combination of efforts () and the use of personal resources of the members of the institute to achieve some common goal.

Within regulatory function Institute develops certain patterns and patterns of behavior of members of the system, as a result of which relationships are regulated.

The last function is broadcasting. Due to this function, social experience is transferred within the institution itself, and members of the system are also introduced to common values, roles and norms. This function may seem secondary, but it is indispensable when changing generations and changing the social boundaries of the institution.

All these functions of social institutions direct members to act in accordance with certain established standards of behavior, and people who are associated with a particular institution tend to fulfill certain social roles that are assigned to them. For example, a soldier who wears a uniform and uses weapons does so primarily not because it is his personal preference, but because the norms and patterns of the social institution to which the soldier belongs so dictate.

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Power- there is the ability and opportunity of some to model the behavior of others, i.e. force someone to do something against their will through any means ranging from persuasion to violence.

- the ability of a social subject (individual, group, layer) to impose and carry out their will with the help of legal and norms and a special institution -.

Power is necessary condition sustainable development society in all its spheres.

Power is distinguished: political, economic, spiritual family, etc. Economic power is based on the right and ability of the owner of any resources to influence the production of goods and services, spiritual power is based on the ability of holders of knowledge, ideology, information to influence changes in people’s consciousness.

Political power is power (the authority to impose will) transferred by a community to a social institution.

Political power can be divided into state, regional, local, party, corporate, clan, etc. State power is ensured by state institutions (parliament, government, court, law enforcement, etc.), as well as a legal framework. Other types of political power are provided by relevant organizations, legislation, charters and instructions, traditions and customs, and public opinion.

Structural elements of power

Considering power as the ability and ability of some to model the behavior of others, we should find out where this ability comes from? Why, in the course of social interaction, are people divided into those who dominate and those who are dominated? In order to answer these questions, you need to know what power is based on, i.e. what are its grounds (sources). There are countless of them. And, nevertheless, among them there are those that are classified as universal, present in one or another proportion (or form) in any power relationship.

In this regard, it is necessary to turn to the accepted principles in political science classifications of bases (sources) of power, and understand what type of power is generated by such of them as force or the threat of force, wealth, knowledge, law, charisma, prestige, authority, etc.

Particular attention should be paid to the argumentation (evidence) of the position that power relations are not only relations of dependence, but also interdependence. That, with the exception of forms of direct violence, there is no absolute power in nature. All power is relative. And it is built not only on the dependence of the ruled on the rulers, but also on the rulers on the ruled. Although the extent of this dependence is different for them.

The closest attention is also required to clarify the essence of the differences in approaches to the interpretation of power and power relations among political scientists representing different political science schools (functionalists, taxonomists, behaviorists). And also what lies behind the definitions of power as a characteristic of an individual, as a resource, as a construct (interpersonal, causal, philosophical), etc.

The main features of political (state) power

Political power is a kind of power complex, including both state power, which plays the role of “first violin” in it, and the power of all other institutional subjects of politics represented by political parties, mass socio-political organizations and movements, independent media, etc.

It is also necessary to take into account that state power, as the most socialized form and core of political power, differs from all other authorities (including political ones) in a number of ways: significant features giving it a universal character. In this regard, one must be prepared to reveal the content of such concepts-signs of this power as universality, publicity, supremacy, monocentrism, diversity of resources, monopoly on the legitimate (i.e., provided for and stipulated by law) use of force, etc.

Such concepts as "political dominance", "legality" and "legitimacy". The first of these concepts is used to denote the process of institutionalization of power, i.e. its consolidation in society as an organized force (in the form of a hierarchical system of power institutions and institutions), functionally intended to carry out general leadership and management of the social organism.

The institutionalization of power in the form of political domination means the structuring in society of relations of command and subordination, order and execution, the organizational division of managerial labor and the privileges usually associated with it, on the one hand, and executive activity, on the other.

As for the concepts of “legality” and “legitimacy”, although the etymology of these concepts is similar (in French the words “legal” and “legitime” are translated as legal), in terms of content they are not synonymous concepts. First concept (legality) emphasizes the legal aspects of power and acts as an integral component of political domination, i.e. consolidation (institutionalization) of power regulated by law and its functioning in the form of a hierarchical system of state bodies and institutions. With clearly defined steps of order and execution.

Legitimacy of political power

- a political property of a public authority, meaning recognition by the majority of citizens of the correctness and legality of its formation and functioning. Any power that is based on popular consensus is legitimate.

Power and power relations

Many people, including some political scientists, believe that the struggle to acquire, distribute, retain, and use power constitutes essence of politics. This point of view was held, for example, by the German sociologist M. Weber. One way or another, the doctrine of power has become one of the most important in political science.

Power in general is the ability of one subject to impose its will on other subjects.

Power is not just the relationship of someone to someone, it is always asymmetrical relationship, i.e. unequal, dependent, allowing one individual to influence and change the behavior of another.

Foundations of power in the very general view perform unmet needs some and the possibility of their satisfaction from others on certain conditions.

Power is a necessary attribute of any organization, any human group. Without power there is no organization and no order. In every joint activity of people there are those who command and those who obey them; those who make decisions and those who carry them out. Power is characterized by the activities of those who control.

Sources of power:

• authority- power as the force of habit, tradition, internalized cultural values;
• strength- “naked power”, in whose arsenal there is nothing but violence and suppression;
• wealth- stimulating, rewarding power, which includes negative sanctions for uncomfortable behavior;
• knowledge— the power of competence, professionalism, the so-called “expert power”;
• charisma— leader’s power, built on the deification of the leader, endowing him with supernatural abilities;
• prestige- identifying (identifying) power, etc.

The need for power

The social nature of people's lives turns power into a social phenomenon. Power is expressed in the ability of united people to achieve their agreed goals, affirm generally accepted values ​​and interact. In undeveloped communities, power is dissolved; it belongs to everyone together and to no one individually. But already here public power takes on the character of the right of the community to influence the behavior of individuals. However, the inevitable difference of interests in any society disrupts political communication, cooperation, and coherence. This leads to the disintegration of this form of power due to its low efficiency, and ultimately to the loss of the ability to achieve agreed goals. In this case, the real prospect is the collapse of this community.

To prevent this from happening, public power is transferred to elected or appointed people - rulers. Rulers receive from the community powers (full power, public authority) to manage social relations, that is, to change the activity of subjects in accordance with the law. The need for management is explained by the fact that people in relationships with each other are very often guided not by reason, but by passions, which leads to the loss of the goal of the community. Therefore, the ruler must have the power that would keep people within the framework of an organized community, exclude extreme manifestations of selfishness and aggression in social relations, ensuring everyone's survival.

Comments

By degree of institutionalization and type of organization power can be divided into formal (institutional) and informal. Formal authority manifests itself in the activities of institutions, institutions of power of the president, parliament, government, court, public organizations, etc. Power formalized in state institutions, is called state power.

Informal power does not have management or executive levels, strictly defined functions and prerogatives. This power manifests itself as leadership in informal movements, leadership of demonstrations, speaking at rallies, etc. (see diagram 4.4).

4.5. Typology of power by the number of those in power

Comments

By the number of rulers, as we know from Aristotle, power can be individual (monarchical), oligarchic (power of a few) or democratic (power of the whole people). But modern political science, taking into account the mainly representative nature of power, divides it on a quantitative basis into individual and collegial.

Example sole power can be considered the power of a monarch, president or dictator.

Collegial power - this is, for example, the power of parliament, the Constitutional Court, and the Council of Ministers. All political decisions in modern world are discussed and often accepted collectively. What matters here is who has the last word, and most importantly, who is responsible for these decisions (see diagram 4.5).

4.6. Levels of power

Comments

Political power is organized and functions in society at three interconnected levels:

macro level - it is the supreme power of the central government institutions;

meso level - the so-called middle level of management, formed by regional, regional government structures (for example, in Russia these are republican and regional dumas, representatives of the President). Their main function is the transmission of commands from the center, control over their implementation and management within the framework of their prerogatives;

mini level - These are local elected authorities of districts and regional centers. They carry out the commands of central and regional bodies, but also have their own budget and solve problems at their level.

An important feature of democracy is the presence of local authority, community authority, village street, city, microdistrict. This is not political power, it does not use means of violence, but it also has its own budget. She solves local problems (road repairs, street cleaning, etc.). Let us remember the reforms of Cleisthenes in Ancient Greece(509 BC). In Athens, it was from meetings of demos that democracy began, that is, solving one’s problems on one’s own. Local authorities enjoy great influence in Europe and the USA. Here it collects tax, has its own budget and significant capabilities. In Russia at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. local government existed in the form of zemstvos. Thus, the fourth level of power, but not state power, not political power, will be micro level or local government (see diagram 4.6).

4.7. Political elite

Comments

Outstanding Italian political scientists G. Mosca and V. Pareto devoted their works to the theoretical justification of the place and role of the elite in the system of power. G. Mosca defined the elite as a group of the most politically active people oriented towards power. They are well united and organized due to the possession of sufficiently large property, good education, professional training, well-established information and close relationships. This allows them to quickly and effectively manage society in their own interests using the so-called political formula - a set of means and methods of manipulating the consciousness of the governed. The presence of a political formula (system of values) creates the illusion of subordination not to a specific person, but to an abstract “principle of power.” Thus, the political formula allows the ruling elite to gain a foothold in power.

V. Pareto believed that the development of society occurs cyclically. The social cycle is the cycle of the elite. It arises in the lower strata of society, as a result of struggle with other groups, rises to upper layer, flourishes and finally degenerates. According to the methods of government, V. Pareto divides the elite into “foxes” and “lions”. The former rule by persuasion, deception, ingratiation, maneuvering. The second is through forceful pressure, coercion and suppression. Ideal rulers skillfully combine the “habits” of foxes and lions (cf. N. Machiavelli).

Elite theories have found their place in modern political science, which by elite means “ruling structures”, “decision-making centers”, “political leadership”, “country leadership”, “presidential entourage”. Sometimes it is directly mentioned about the ruling elite, which includes the administrative (bureaucratic) elite, the highest military circles, representatives of science, culture, the media and religion, that is, those who make political decisions in reality high level, and those who shape public opinion.

(Political philosophy)

Typology of power

(Management)

Comments Power is faith, promise. As a rule, they promise something very significant, of value to the majority. For example, Münzer promised “the kingdom of God on earth”, V.I. Lenin - “the kingdom of free labor”, A. Hitler - “a thousand-year Reich”, etc. Power-persuasion acts through consciousness...
(POLITICAL SCIENCE IN DIAGRAMS AND COMMENTS)

Authority and typology of power

Legitimacy as recognition of the legitimacy of power, its powers, presupposes its authority. Authority can be determined by a number of factors: life competence, intellectual abilities that help convince others that one is right, and the possession of powerful resources. Depending on the authority they differ...
(Political philosophy)

Typology of power

It is possible to derive a typology of power: 1) power based on coercion, a sense of fear, and heightened responsibility; 2) power based on insufficient information from a subordinate or on the possession of an undesirable type of information by a subordinate or manager; 3) power based on interests and needs...
(Management)

All outstanding representatives of political science paid close attention to the phenomenon of power. Each of them contributed to the development of the theory of power.

Political power manifests itself in a variety of forms, the main ones being domination, leadership, organization, control .

Domination presupposes the absolute or relative subordination of some people and their communities to the subjects of power and the social strata they represent (see: Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 1983. - P. 85).

Management is expressed in the ability of a subject of power to exercise his will by developing programs, concepts, installations, and determining development prospects social system as a whole and its various links. Management determines current and long-term goals, develops strategic and tactical objectives.

Control manifests itself in the conscious, purposeful influence of the subject of power on various parts of the social system, on controlled objects in order to implement the objectives

manuals. Management is carried out using various methods, which can be administrative, authoritarian, democratic, based on coercion, etc.

Political power manifests itself in various forms. A meaningful typology of political power can be built “according to various criteria:

• according to the degree of institutionalization: government, city, school, etc.;
• by subject of power - class, party, people's, presidential, parliamentary, etc.;
• on a quantitative basis... - individual (monocratic), oligarchic (power of a cohesive group), polyarchic (multiple power of a number of institutions or individuals);
• By social type government - monarchical, republican; by mode of government - democratic, authoritarian, despotic, totalitarian, bureaucratic, etc.;
• by social type - socialist, bourgeois, capitalist, etc...." (Political Science: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 1993. - P. 44)!

An important type of political power is state power . The concept of state power is much narrower compared to the concept "political power" . In this regard, the use of these concepts as identical is incorrect.

State power, like political power in general, can achieve its goals through political education, ideological influence, dissemination of necessary information, etc. However, this does not express its essence. “State power is a form of political power that has the monopoly right to make laws binding on the entire population, and relies on a special apparatus of coercion as one of the means for complying with laws and orders. State power in equally means both a specific organization and practical activities to implement the goals and objectives of this organization" (Krasnov B.I. Power as a phenomenon public life// Social and political spiders. - 1991. - No. 11. - P. 28).

When characterizing state power, two extremes cannot be allowed. On the one hand, it is a mistake to consider this power ONLY as a power that is engaged ONLY in oppressing the people, and on the other hand, to characterize it only as a power that is completely absorbed in concerns about the well-being of the people. State power constantly implements both. Moreover, by oppressing the people, the state government realizes not only its own interests, but also the interests of the people, who are interested in the stability of society, in its normal functioning and development; By showing concern for the welfare of the people, it ensures the realization not so much of their interests as of its own, for only by satisfying the needs of the majority of the population, to a certain extent, can it preserve its privileges, ensure the realization of its interests, its well-being.

In reality, there may be different systems of government. All of them, however, come down to two main ones - federal and unitary. The essence of these systems of power is determined by the nature of the existing division of state power between its subjects at different levels. If between the central and local government bodies there are intermediate bodies that, in accordance with the constitution, are endowed with certain power functions, then federal system authorities. If there are no such intermediate authorities or they are completely dependent on central authorities, then a unitary system of state power operates.

State power performs legislative, executive and judicial functions. In this regard, they are divided into legislative, executive and judicial powers.

In some countries, to the above three powers, a fourth is added - the electoral power, which is represented by electoral courts, which decide questions about the correctness of the election of deputies. In the constitutions of individual countries we're talking about about five and even six powers. The fifth power is represented by the Comptroller General with the apparatus subordinate to him: the sixth is the constituent power to adopt the constitution.

The expediency of the separation of powers is determined, firstly, by the need to clearly define the functions, competence and responsibilities of each branch of government; secondly, the need to prevent abuse of power, the establishment of dictatorship, totalitarianism, and usurpation of power; thirdly, the need to exercise mutual control over the branches of government; fourthly, the need of society to combine such contradictory aspects of life as power and freedom, law and justice. . state and society, command and submission; fifthly, the need to create checks and balances in the implementation of power functions (see: Krasnov B.I. Theory of power and power relations // Socio-political journal. - 199.4. - No. 7-8. - P. 40).

Legislative power is based on the principles of constitutionality and the rule of law. It is formed through free elections. This power amends the constitution, determines the foundations of internal and foreign policy state, approves the state budget, adopts laws binding on all citizens and authorities, and monitors their implementation. The supremacy of the legislative power is limited by the principles of government, the constitution, and human rights.

Executive-administrative power exercises direct state power. It not only implements laws, but also issues regulations and takes legislative initiatives. This power must be based on the law and act within the framework of the law. The right to control the activities of the executive branch should belong to representative bodies state power.

The judicial power represents a relatively independent structure of state power. “In its actions, this power must be independent of the legislative and executive powers (see: Ibid. - pp. 43-44, 45).

The beginning of a theoretical substantiation of the problem of separation of powers is associated with the name of the French philosopher and historian S. L. Montesquieu, who, as already noted when considering the stages of development of political thought, proposed dividing power into legislative (a representative body elected by the people), executive power (the power of the monarch) and judiciary (independent courts).

Subsequently, Montesquieu's ideas were developed in the works of other thinkers and legislatively enshrined in the constitutions of many countries. The US Constitution, for example, which was adopted in 1787, states that the powers of the legislative branch of the country belong to Congress, the executive branch is exercised by the President, the judicial branch is exercised by the Supreme Court and the lower courts, which are approved by Congress. The principle of separation of powers, according to constitutions, underlies state power in a number of other countries. However, it has not been fully implemented in one country. At the same time, in many countries the basis of state power is the principle of uniqueness.

In our country, for many years it was believed that the idea of ​​separation of powers could not be realized in practice due to the fact that power is united and indivisible. IN recent years the situation has changed. Now everyone is talking about the need for separation of powers. However, the problem of separation has not yet been resolved in practice due to the fact that the separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers is often replaced by opposition between these powers.

The solution to the problem of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers lies in finding the optimal relationship between them as directions of a single state power, clearly defining their functions and powers.

A relatively independent type of political power is party power. As a type of political power, this power is not recognized by all researchers. In the domestic scientific, educational, educational and methodological literature, the point of view continues to dominate, according to which a party can be a link in the system of political power, but not a subject of power. Many foreign researchers do not recognize the party as a subject of power. Reality has long refuted this point of view. It is known, for example, that for many decades in our country the subject of political power was the CPSU. Parties have been the real subjects of political power for many years in the industrialized countries of the West.

Political power performs various functions. It implements general organizational, regulatory, control functions, organizes political life society, regulation of political relations, structuring the political organization of society, formation public consciousness etc.

In domestic scientific, educational, educational and methodological literature, the functions of political power are often characterized with a “plus” sign. For example, B.I. Krasnov writes: “The government must: 1) ensure the legal rights of citizens, their constitutional freedoms always and in everything; 2) affirm the law as the core of social relations and be able to obey the law; 3) perform economic and creative functions” (Krasnov B.I. Power as a phenomenon of social life // Socio-political sciences. - 1991. - No. 11. - P. 31).

The fact that “the government should” ensure “the rights of citizens,” “their constitutional freedoms,” “perform creative functions,” etc. is certainly a good wish. The only bad thing is that it is often not implemented in practice. In reality, the government not only ensures the rights and constitutional freedoms of citizens, but also tramples them; it not only creates, but also destroys, etc. Therefore, it seems that some foreign researchers give more objective characteristics of the functions of political power.

According to foreign political scientists, power “manifests itself” through the following main features and functions:

Political power performs its functions through political institutions, institutions, and organizations that make up political systems.