Scheme for observing schoolchildren’s behavior during a psychological examination. Regush Lyudmila Aleksandrovna workshop on observation and observational skills series of workshops Scheme of standardized observation of children's attention

12.7. Oddities, observations? When you say hello first, sometimes the elders (mostly older women) pretend not to hear and “go on their own.” Therefore, on this occasion, one grandmother I knew, almost a mother-in-law, said: first of all, don’t say hello to strangers. But I can’t unlearn it

Observations and Questions and Answers Perhaps it is now obvious to you that the world of any person is a complex mosaic of subjective perceptions, unconscious conditioning and objective facts, which is constantly changing (and the only constant thing is change).

Observation technique for analyzing the interaction process by R. Bales designed to study small groups (their approach to problem solving, status-role structure, etc.), as well as the personal characteristics of the participants and their relationships. The interaction process is described using 12 descriptive categories that reflect the main problems of relationships and group processes: a) exchange of information and definition of the situation in group consciousness; b) mutual assessment of each other and external information, formation of group values; c) attempts by individuals to command or influence each other, the formation of a status hierarchy; d) forming a group solution to the problem; e) weakening interpersonal and intrapersonal tensions, maintaining harmony; f) development of mutual assistance and support, group integration. R. Bales in later works allows for the reduction of the original 12 categories to 8, corresponding to 4 main parameters: adaptive actions (compliance, condescension; the opposite - elevation, dominance); integrative actions (causing acceptance or non-acceptance); instrumental and expressive actions (see Figure 2).

The observer must internalize the list of categories and the meaning of each of them, not individually, but as an ordered system. Before the interaction begins, it remembers the participants and identifies each with a number or letter. When observing, he divides the behavior of the participants into separate acts and records each one, subsuming it under the category in the scheme that best describes this fact.

a – orientation problem;

b – problem of assessment, opinion;

c – control problem;

d – problem of finding a solution;

e – the problem of overcoming tension;

f – integration problem.

The most informative data using this scheme can be obtained by observing a group working under time pressure while jointly solving complex problems.

Figure 2.

Using observation to study development. Wide application of observation method for studying mental development children is determined by the characteristics of the research object. Small child cannot be a participant in psychological experiments, is unable to give a verbal account of his actions, thoughts, emotions and actions. The accumulation of data on the mental development of infants and young children has made it possible to combine them into certain systems.

Development tables of A. Gesell cover four main areas of child behavior: motor skills, language, adaptive and personal-social behavior. Data obtained through direct observation of children's responses to common toys and other objects are supplemented by information reported by the child's mother. American psychologist A. Anastasi, in his authoritative manual on psychological testing, notes the lack of standardization of these development tables, but points out their usefulness as a supplement to medical examinations carried out by pediatricians and other specialists.

Methodology E. Frucht records the development of a child aged from 10 days to 12 months in the following categories: 1) visual indicative reactions; 2) auditory orientation reactions; 3) emotions and social behavior; 4) hand movements and actions with objects; 5) general movements; 6) speech understanding; 7) active speech; 8) skills and abilities.

For each age, a list of categories (from two to seven) and a description of reactions characteristic of this age are given. For example, for the age of 1 month: general movements - lying on his stomach, trying to raise and hold his head (for 5 seconds); immediately raises his head after stroking his back, holds it for 5 seconds and lowers it. For the age of 3 months: general movements - lies on the stomach, leaning on the forearms and raising the head high (for 1 minute), immediately raises the head high, leaning on the forearms, the chest is raised, the legs lie quietly, maintains this position for 1 minute; holds the head in an upright position (in the arms of an adult); holds head straight for 30 seconds. With support under the armpits, firmly rests on a solid support with legs bent at the hip joint; when touching the support, straightens the legs at the knee joint and rests with both feet.

This scheme is not aimed at making a diagnosis, but only allows you to recognize the general picture of development and pay attention to some alarming symptoms.

Development cards by D. Lashley. The author suggests using the following structural headings in the development card: 1) physical development, which covers both general movements, such as walking, climbing, and more subtle ones, for example, coordination of eye and hand movements when drawing and sculpting; 2) communication and speech development. These include expressive language and comprehension; 3) social development and play - include relationships with adults and children, how the child plays, his interests, and the ability to concentrate on these activities; 4) self-reliance and independence - the ability to do without the help of adults while eating, dressing, using the toilet, as well as the ability to help adults, participate in group activities and carry out routine assignments; n) behavior. sometimes included in headings 3 (social development) or 4 (independence), but this section is necessary to record the child’s difficulties and problems.

The structure of the development card is a list of points for each area of ​​development. If a skill or skill has been formed, then a “V” (check mark) is placed on the card; if the data is uncertain, a “?” is placed. The results are not summed up at the end. This is a way to “photograph” a baby at some point in development for planning further measures for his upbringing, as well as for comparison with future “snapshots” of the same child.

Psychologists and speech therapists use the results of a child's development for the purpose of comparison with average indicators for children of a given age. Educators tend to compare later developmental results with earlier ones. If a child has developmental deviations, they are usually expressed in a decrease in the rate of development. For such children, special development cards are needed, which indicate more detailed stages and steps that the child goes through before mastering certain skills. They are not always marked as completed milestones for healthy children.

When choosing a development card, you should not strive to find a perfect example - one is unlikely to exist. Precisely formulated points on the card are less important than systematic observation of the child. The regularity of observations is called by D. Lashley the “method of time-based samples” and means conducting observations over pre-marked time periods. All entries related to one “slice” must be entered into the card within one week. If this is not possible, observation should be postponed.

Methods for observing “difficult” behavior by D. Lashley. The author believes that in order to understand the child’s problem, one should conduct an observation and then draw a conclusion about how serious it is. It is quite easy to determine three main aspects of observation: 1) frequency - how often the problem occurs; 2) duration - how long the “difficult” behavior lasts in each case or for how long in a day such behavior appears typical; 3) intensity - the problem is not complicated, quite serious or very serious. Separately, it should be said about the frequency of observations. You can observe the child for several days, or you can simply count the number of manifestations of “difficult” behavior. Frequency counting in relation to such behavior sometimes brings unexpected results. Adults may decide that the child is naughty most of the day, but after observation it turns out that there are long periods during the day or even whole days when the child is not “difficult” at all.

Thus, based on observation, it is possible to conduct both fundamental research in the field child development, as well as a huge number of applied research that helps to reveal and explain various phenomena of child development. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for a teacher, as it allows him to better understand his students.

Analysis of pedagogical communication using observation. Experts in the field of educational psychology are unanimous in affirming the leading role of pedagogical communication in the process of teaching and raising children. Pedagogical communication is the foundation of relationships with children. There is a law of transferring the attitude of schoolchildren towards the teacher to their attitude towards the academic subject, therefore the analysis of pedagogical communication is one of the main aspects of the psychological analysis of a lesson (lesson).

N. Flanders' technique is intended for observation and analysis of speech interaction between teacher and students. It uses 10 categories of interaction, 7 of which relate to the teacher’s speech activity, 2 to students’ statements, and 1 category is of an auxiliary nature. A list of interaction categories is given in Appendix 1. N. Flanders’ methodology considers verbal interaction from the standpoint of the balance of initiative in communication between teacher and student, as well as the nature of interaction (directive - non-directive).

The N. Flanders system is one of the most popular all over the world; several modifications have been created on its basis. There is a modification for analyzing a school lesson A.E. Steinmetz, which proposes to highlight the following positions in the analysis of pedagogical communication in the lesson: emphasizing the thoughts of students (AM); acceptance of the feelings of students (AS); expression of satisfaction (SA; appeal to the opinions of students (OM), instructions, orders (UR); expression of dissatisfaction (VN) ; disciplinary influences (DI); conflict interactions (CI) (Appendix 2).

After counting the manifestations of individual positions, a meaningful description of the prevailing positions in each structural component of the lesson is given, as well as the validity and appropriateness of their use.

To analyze the interaction of a teacher in classes with preschool children, it is recommended to use N. Flanders’ modified speech interaction analysis system T.I. Chirkova(Appendix 3). During classes, the teacher’s speech takes up most of the time; it permeates all structural parts of educational and cognitive activity, from setting goals and objectives to assessing the results of the educational and cognitive process. Verbal interaction is of great importance in the education and upbringing of a child, since language transmits culture. The teacher’s speech is the main means of introducing children to the ways of human thinking, and it is very important that verbal communication is carried out at a level sufficient for such purposes. All speech reactions are divided into several categories, combined into three groups: the teacher’s reaction to the children’s actions, the teacher’s own initiative, the children’s conversation.

The protocol records all speech utterances of the teacher and children assigned to various categories. In some cases, the reasons that led to this or that statement are indicated. Quantitative processing may be used in the analysis. The number of statements classified in a particular category is counted.

Qualitative analysis can be done in several ways, depending on the purposes of observation: the first way is to see how categories change in time sequence during a lesson - at the beginning, middle, end. In this case, the fixation of categories should be carried out with a breakdown by time. Using this method, pedagogical skill is clearly visible. A certain combination of categories indicates the teacher’s support for children’s cognitive activity and the provision of opportunities for children to show their own initiative in the classroom. The reverse sequence of these same categories indicates the suppression of manifestations of child activity. The dominance of monotonous interaction options characterizes the formality and stereotyping of conduct training session with kids. Thus, the first method of analysis allows us to identify the type of activity of children in the classroom, the position of the teacher and his attitude towards the manifestation of children's initiative in the classroom. The second method of analysis allows us to identify specific gravity speech activity of the teacher and children during the lesson. The optimal ratio is considered to be 2: 3 (2 – teacher’s speech activity, 3 – children’s speech activity). The correlation between the use of various categories also allows us to draw a conclusion about the style of pedagogical communication in the classroom.

Observation technique L.A. Regush designed to analyze the teacher's verbal influences during the lesson. This technique differs from the previous ones by the presence of “keys” - empirically obtained ranking places of various categories of interaction at high and low levels of student understanding (S.V. Kondratyeva).

To process the observation results, it is necessary to: count the number of words-influences of each type, determine the ranking place of each type of influence, correlate the ranking places of one or another type of influence observed from the teacher with the data presented in the “keys”. Based on these data, we can draw the following conclusions: about the most typical types of verbal influence for a given teacher (1st – 4th ranking places); about the least typical types of verbal influence for a given teacher (9th – 12th ranking places). (Appendix 4).

When using methods for observing the activities of a teacher, the following conditions must be observed: before conducting an observation, you need to familiarize the teacher in detail with the methodology used and, having received the consent of the teacher, carry out timing and recording of categories of interaction. It is advisable to conduct repeated observations in several classes (lessons). Analyze and discuss the observation results together with the teacher. When analyzing categories of interaction, adhere to the principles of person-centered developmental education.

Analysis of student behavior using the observation method. In the process of teaching and raising children, the need arises to study their behavioral characteristics. For this purpose, techniques based on the observation method can be used.

Rating scale for measuring student reactivity Ya. Strelyau. The scale consists of descriptions of 10 types of behavior in various situations that are considered particularly important for the diagnosis of reactivity. Each of these types is rated on a five-point system. Therefore, a student can receive a maximum of 50 points and a minimum of 10 points. In this case, the level of reactivity is lower, the more points the observed person receives. The observation scheme is given in Appendix 5.

The Stota observation map is designed to study the behavior of students maladapted to school conditions. Teachers who have the opportunity to interact with students in lessons, in extracurricular activities, and observe them during breaks and in their free time are involved in observation. The observation map consists of a description of 16 symptom complexes (SC). Each SC includes a list of behavior patterns. In each IC, behavioral patterns have their own numbering (see Appendix 6). When filling out the card, the observer marks with a “+” sign the manifestations that are characteristic of the student and with a “–” sign - those that are not characteristic. Behavior patterns in different social networks have unequal information weight, therefore, when translating primary empirical indicators, a special table is used. Then, in each SC, the points are summed up and converted into percentages. Based on the results of filling out the observation card, the maladjustment coefficient is calculated. However, according to Stott, the numerical indicators of the SC are indicative, and they must be handled with caution, because the technique is not standardized.

According to V.A. Murzenko, the coefficient of maladaptation of the main part of the sample ranges from 6 to 25 points. In 20.8% of the sample, the maladaptation coefficient exceeds 25 points, which indicates a significant violation of the mechanisms of personal adaptation. Such students are on the verge of clinical disorders and need special help, including the intervention of a neuropsychiatrist. For 5.5% of students, we can rather talk about situational personal reactions than about stable personality deviations. Analysis of the structures of completed observation cards showed that a typical structure is one in which a dominant symptom complex is identified, sometimes a group of symptom complexes. The following frequencies of distribution of dominant symptom complexes have been identified:

V. BB– hostility towards adults – 34.4%,

VII. A– lack of social normativity (asociality) – 22.2%,

III. U – withdrawal into oneself – 12.5%,

II. D – depression – 11.1%,

VIII. VD– hostility towards children – 11.1%,

I.ND – distrust of new people, things, situations – 8.3%.

Thus, observation methods can be used both in psychological and pedagogical research and in the practical activities of psychologists in educational institutions. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for a teacher, as it allows him to better understand his students.

Questions for section 2:

1. Highlight the main characteristics of observation as a method of psychological research.

2. What does the observation technique consist of?

3. What phenomena act as the subject and object of observation?

4. In what ways can you minimize the influence of the presence of an observer on the behavior of those being observed?

5. Describe the main types of observation.

6. What methods are there to obtain a quantitative assessment of the observed phenomena?

7. What methods of verbal recording of behavior were proposed to be distinguished by M.Ya. Basov?

8. What are the forms for recording non-standardized and standardized observations?

9. For what purposes can R. Bales’ observation technique be used?

10. What methods for diagnosing the development of infants and young children are based on the observation method?

11. What techniques based on the observation method can be used to analyze pedagogical communication?

1. Anastasi A. Psychological testing. T. 1, 2. M., 1982.

2. Basov M.Ya. Selected psychological works. M., 1975.

3. Age and individual characteristics of younger adolescents / ed. D.B. Elkonina, T.V. Dragunova. M., 1967.

4. Lashley D. Work with young children. M., 1991.

5. Nikandrov V.V. Observation and experiment in psychology. St. Petersburg, 2001.

6. General workshop in psychology. Observation method. Part 1 / Ed. M.B. Mikhalevskaya. M., 1985.

7. Psychological diagnostics: Problems and research / ed. K.M. Gurevich. M., 1981.

8. Psychological tasks for pedagogical practice students. / Ed. A.E. Steinmetz, M., 2002.

9. Workbook of a school psychologist / ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1991.

10. Regush L.A. Observation in practical psychology. St. Petersburg, 1996.

11. Regush L.A. Workshop on observation and observation skills. St. Petersburg, 2001.

12. Chirkova T.I. Psychological service in kindergarten. M., 2000.

Child monitoring scheme

during a psychological examination

(for children from 6 to 15 years old)

(Cherny V., Komarik T. Compendium of psychodiagnostic methods. - Bratislava, 1988.-T. 2.-S. 215-216) When creating an observation scheme, the authors proceeded from the requirement to create a manual that would combine and simplify the system of observation and conversation. The starting points were an analysis of the course of a routine psychological examination, the choice of psychological concepts and terms, familiarization with scientific literature and schemes of a similar type. The diagram contains concepts related to certain manifestations of the child’s behavior and its characteristics. The psychologist’s task is to note the child’s characteristic features. The basis of the observation scheme is a form consisting of the following parts:

direct observation; derived characteristics; topics for conversation.

Somatotype, gait, face, facial expressions and pantomime, skin, teeth, hygiene
hyena, cosmetics, clothes. Characteristics of speech - voice, pace, talkativeness, pronunciation
tion, vocabulary, verbal reactions. General mobility - speed, accuracy, focus,
tension, impaired mobility. Social behavior - establishing contact, changes in behavior
steps during the examination, social skills and politeness,

Mood - euphoria, carefree, happiness, even mood,
serious mood; mood variability under the influence of external
them factors. Behavior in a situation of solving problems (tests) - attitude to the task
niyamas, work skills, mindfulness. Signs of neurotic tension - hand movements, makeup
sy, nail biting; sweating, shaking hands, etc.

Rating scale for measurementstudent reactivity

Instructions. Determine the intensity of each of the named properties of the student’s behavior on a five-point scale. When assessing, one should proceed from specific, observable forms and methods of behavior.

flattening - lowering the eyebrows, raising the eyebrows.

increase - reduction of the palpebral fissure, elevation of the upper eyelid, decrease in the tone of the upper eyelid, the nature of the gaze (visual axes intersect at the very fore-
met or converge outside the object), direction of gaze (to the side, in the face, in the eyes), gaze intensity.

Area from base of nose to chin:

changes in the corners of the mouth (retracted-lowered), the tone of the mouth, the size of the oral fissure (mouth closed, half-open, open).

the student’s facial orientation to the object (increase-decrease-
sewing); in a fixed coordinate system: complete, incomplete, absent
there is a facial orientation, changes in horizontal head position (left, right),
vertically (raised, lowered), methods of fixing the head through support on the hand.

changes in the position of the body in relation to the object, the orientation of the plane of the body to the object in relative
and a fixed coordinate system (similar to front-facing
ness).

tone of the left and right hands (compressed, splayed, unpronounced
free contact with the desk, other objects), movements that are means of self-influence, self-
simulations: auto-contacts of the hands, auto-contacts of the hand with other
with your bodies.

change in leg tone; changing the position of the legs.

Stott Observation Map

(Workbook of a school psychologist / Edited by I. V. Dubrovina. - M.: Prosve-shchenie, 1991. - P. 169) Stott’s Observation Card (OC) consists of 16 sets of symptoms-patterns of behavior, symptom complexes (SC ). IC are printed in the form of lists and numbered (I-XVI). In each SC, behavior patterns have their own numbering. When filling out the CT, the presence of each of the behavioral patterns indicated in it in the subject is marked with a “+” sign, and the absence - with a “-”. These data are entered into a special table (see Table 1). The filling out SC, having made a conclusion about the presence or absence of the next behavior pattern, enters the number of the behavior pattern in the column of the corresponding SC and puts a “+” or “-” sign to the right of the number. Behavior patterns have unequal informative weight. Therefore, when translating the primary empirical indicators “+”, “-” in raw assessments for some patterns of behavior 1 point is given, for others - 2 points." To do this, use a table for converting primary empirical indicators into raw estimates (Table 2). In each SC, points for behavior patterns are summed up. Then the sums of raw estimates for each IC are converted into percentages. Percentage indicators indicate the severity of KS in the subject from the maximum possible severity. The conversion of raw scores into percentages is shown in Table 3, which is structured as follows: 1. All scores for each SC from Table 2 are summed up.

2. Then each of the possible raw sums of assessments is divided by the maximum possible sum and multiplied by 100%.

According to Stott, the numerical indicators of the SC have
meaning, but approximate, therefore, when interpreting, pay attention
You need to be careful with them. The technique is not standardized for practice
tical needs. ", Using quantiles, the numerical scales (from 0 to 100%) for each SC were divided into five intervals. The interval from 0 to 20% indicates such a weak expression of quality that in fact we are dealing with a quality different from that inherent in this SC Thus, a very weakly expressed SC V.HB may indicate the child’s attempts to establish a good relationship with an adult, but accompanied by actions that are unpleasant for the adult. The interval from 80% to 100% similarly shows that here the quality of the SC has outgrown ourselves and we are dealing with a different quality. For the correct interpretation of extreme intervals, it is especially important to involve additional information. Intervals from 20% to 40%, from 40% to 60 %, from 60% to 80%, respectively, indicate noticeable expression, strong expression, very strong expression of quality. , Contents of symptom complexes Stott's CN is designed to study the characteristics of students maladapted to school conditions. There are two types of students who are maladjusted: the first - those who themselves experience difficulties and create many difficulties for those around them (technical staff, teachers and other children), the so-called “difficult”; the second - for whom it is difficult at school, but they do not cause trouble to others. The identified features (external manifestations, patterns of behavior), called symptom complexes, are as follows: /. ND - lack of trust in new things, people, situations. SC positively correlates with sensitivity according to the Lichko PDO. Any achievement costs a child enormous effort. II.O - weakness (asthenia). We are not talking about clinical or even subclinical forms of weakness, but about manifestations of apathy, low mood, and a kind of “neurophysical exhaustion.” In a milder form, drops in energy alternate with manifestations of energy and activity. KS speaks of a shortage of energy resources in the child’s body, and, consequently, of his inability to demonstrate activity. III. U - withdrawal into oneself. Self-elimination. A defensive attitude towards contacts with any people, rejection of the feelings of love shown towards him. IV. TV - anxiety about acceptance by adults and interest on their part.
Anxiety and uncertainty as to whether adults are interested in him or love him. SK expresses anxious hopes, aspirations, and attempts by the student to establish and maintain good relationships with adults. V. NV- rejection from adults. Manifestation of various forms of rejection by adults: from avoidance of the teacher, suspicion of him to an uncontrollable habit of hostility. VI. TD - anxiety for acceptance by children. Anxiety and uncertainty about whether his children love him and whether he is of interest to them. SK TD expresses the same tendencies as > SK TV, but in relation to peers. VII. A - asociality. Lack of social normativity. This term does not mean manifestations of antisocial behavior, although with strong severity (82% or more) this may occur. Weak expression of SC A (14% or less) can also occur if the student’s moral attitudes are higher than the moral requirements imposed on him by the school (which, of course, is not necessary, but does occur). VIII. KD - conflict with children. It should be noted that the weak expression of SC NV and CD may indicate attempts to establish or maintain good relationships, but not in normal, but in erroneous ways. This may be a signal of the beginning of the transition “from love to hate,” when manifestations of the bad still alternate with manifestations of the good. IX.N - restlessness or restlessness. Impatience, unsuitability for work that requires perseverance, concentration, reflection, avoidance of long-term efforts. X. EN- emotional stress or emotional immaturity.
A sign of delayed emotional development, leading to emotional overstrain (stress) in school conditions. Manifests itself in infantilism of speech, anxiety, tendency to tears, etc.

Observation map

Talks to the teacher only when he is with him
alone. Cries when reprimanded. Never offers any help to anyone, but willingly provides
calls her if asked. The child is “subordinate” (agrees to “unwinnable”
roles, for example, during the game he runs after the ball, while
others look at it calmly). Too anxious to be naughty. Lies out of fear. He loves if people show him sympathy, but does not ask for it. Never brings flowers or other gifts to the teacher, although
his comrades often do this. Never brings or shows the teacher what he has found.
things, although his comrades often do it.

Does not approach the teacher on his own initiative. Too shy to ask for things (such as food)
power). Easily becomes “nervous”, cries, blushes if asked questions
question. Easily withdraws from active participation in the game. Speaks inexpressively, mumbles, especially when with him
say hello.

P.O - weakness (asthenia). In a milder form (symptoms 1-6), various changes in activity and mood changes are observed from time to time. The presence of symptoms 7 and 8 indicates a tendency to irritation and physiological exhaustion. Symptoms 9-20 reflect more acute forms of depression. Syndrome O items are usually accompanied by severe TV and NV syndromes (see IV and V), especially in extreme forms of depression. In all likelihood, they do represent elements of depressive exhaustion. 1. When answering in class, sometimes he is diligent, sometimes he doesn’t care about anything.

Depending on how he feels, he either asks for help in performing
missing school assignments, or not. Behaves differently. Diligence in academic work me-
occurs almost daily. In games he is sometimes active, sometimes apathetic. In his free time, he sometimes shows a complete lack of interest.
sa to whatever it is. When doing manual work, sometimes he is very diligent, sometimes not. Impatient, loses interest in work as it progresses. Angry, “flies into a rage.” Can work alone, but gets tired quickly.

There is not enough physical strength for manual work. Lethargic, lacking initiative (in class). Apathetic, passive, inattentive. Sudden and sharp drops in energy are common. Movements are slow. Too apathetic to get upset about anything
(and therefore does not turn to anyone for help). The look is “dull” and indifferent. Always lazy and apathetic in games. Often daydreams. He speaks expressionlessly and mumbles. Causes pity (oppressed, unhappy), rarely laughs.

Absolutely never greets anyone. Doesn't respond to greetings. Does not show friendliness and goodwill towards other people
dyam. Avoids conversations (“closed in”). Dreams and does something else instead of schoolwork
(“lives in another world”). Shows no interest in manual work at all. Shows no interest in group games. Avoids other people. Stays away from adults, even when touched by something or
Something is suspected.

Completely isolated from other children (it is impossible to approach him
get closer). It gives the impression that it is completely irreplaceable.
looks out for other people.

He is restless in conversation and gets off topic.

Behaves like a “wary animal.”

He is very willing to carry out his duties. Shows an excessive desire to greet the teacher. Too talkative (bothers with his chatter). Very willing to bring flowers and other gifts to the teacher. Very often he brings and shows the teacher what he has found.
objects, drawings, etc. Overly friendly towards the teacher. Tells the teacher an exaggerated amount about his classes at school
family. He “sucks up”, tries to please the teacher. Always finds an excuse to keep the teacher busy with his special someone.

The manual includes a description of the principles of Russian spelling and a presentation of the rules of spelling and punctuation, taking into account the trends in their development reflected in the practice of modern printing.

Observation is usually called a purposeful, intentional and specially organized perception, determined by the task of the observer and not requiring him to “intervene” by creating special conditions in the “life” of the observed process or phenomenon. Observation differs from aimless passive “gazing,” which also does not in any way change the conditions of existence of the phenomenon under consideration, primarily in that it is subordinated to a specific goal, is carried out according to a pre-developed plan, and is equipped with objective means for carrying out the observation process itself and recording its results.

Observation - active form sensory knowledge, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects of observation, or test initial assumptions associated with them. It is precisely because observation provides knowledge through direct contact through the senses with the object of study that it became historically the first scientific method.

The term “observation”, as E.A. rightly believes. Klimov, is used in three different meanings: observation as an activity, as a method and as a technique. Let's look at them one by one.

Observation is used not only in scientific research, but also in various types of social practice, retaining its basic features. The power system operator observing the instrument readings carries out the inspection according to a specific plan; the doctor, conducting a systematic examination of the patient, gets an idea of ​​his state of health; The investigator, observing the behavior of the criminal during interrogation, checks which of the hypotheses about the role of the interrogated in the crime is most plausible. Whether observation is scientific or practical is determined primarily by the nature of the goals. Scientific observation always pursues research, educational "goals. Observation included in practical activity is aimed at its maintenance; the results of observation are immediately used to achieve the main goal of practical activity: by a doctor to make a diagnosis, by an operator to control the distribution of electricity, by an investigator to solve a crime. Thus In this way, the truth and objectivity of the observation results are immediately verified.

The term "method" was used in ancient world as a synonym for "teaching". Currently, in philosophical literature, method is broadly understood as “a form of practical and theoretical mastery of reality, based on the laws of the object being studied” (Philosophical Encyclopedia, vol. 3, p. 409). In other words, the method includes, on the one hand, a system of regulatory principles of practical and cognitive theoretical activities, that is, methods of manufacturing products or methods of research and presentation of material, and, on the other hand, a method of interpreting facts (A.P. Kupriyan). In agreement with this point of view, B.A. Klimov believes that observation method in psychology is system of provisions about the essence and specificity of psychological observation, about its capabilities and limitations as a method scientific research, about tools, about the structure and types of activities of a psychologist in the role of an observer. Observation is one of the methods of collecting data, such as an experiment, conversation, survey or analysis of the products of activity, and differs from them either in the type of relationship to the object of study (in experiment 1, a conversation, the researcher causes the phenomenon he is studying by creating special conditions), or in the presence of direct visual and auditory contact with the object of study (this is absent when analyzing the products of activity and does not always occur in experiments). Main characteristics psychological method observations are purposeful, mediated by theoretical concepts and planned. From a methodological point of view, observation in psychology is characterized by “universality,” that is, its application to the study of such a wide range of mental phenomena that, perhaps, no other method of psychology has, flexibility, that is, the ability to change the “field of coverage” as necessary during the course of observation. the object being studied or the hypothesis being tested, and the absence or minimal requirements for the hardware for conducting the observation. These characteristics allow it to still retain its significance as the main method of psychology.

In relation to this specific research task, taking into account the specific nature of the reality being studied, the situation, the conditions in which the research should be carried out, the availability of certain objective means for carrying out observation and recording its results, the observation method is implemented in the form of a specific technique. Under observation technique usually understood (E.A. Klimov, G. Faznakht) socially fixed, stated clearly for others, objectively presented collection and processing system empirical data, which is adequate to a certain limited range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature, the term “observation techniques” is used as a synonym for the understanding of the technique given here. Observation methods differ in the ways of organizing observation activities, methods of dismembering (quantifying) the observed flow of the reality under study, the nature and size of observation units, methods of recording what is observed (hand recording, film, photo, video recording) and methods of analyzing the results (qualitative, quantitative ). The methodology, as the most complete description of the entire observation procedure, includes: the choice of situation and object of observation, which is determined primarily by the purpose of the study and, to a certain extent, theoretical ideas about the reality being studied; observation program (scheme) in the form of a variable list of signs (aspects) of observed behavior, units of observation with their detailed description, as well as the method and form of recording the results of observation; description of the requirements for organizing the work of the observer; description of the method of processing and presenting the obtained data.

This section of the general practicum in psychology is aimed at familiarizing students with the features of psychological observation and mastering the basics of constructing observation methods in relation to a specific research problem.

Features of the observation method in psychology

The specific features that distinguish the observation method in psychology from the characteristics of this method in other sciences are due to a number of factors, which we will consider below. All of them are in one way or another connected with the characteristics of the psyche as a subject studied by our science. Mental life is inaccessible to direct observation from the outside, hidden from the eyes of outsiders. Part of it is revealed to the inner gaze and is known through introspection. Related to this circumstance is the fact that during an entire period in the history of psychology, introspection (introspection) remained the only method of our science. But only a small part is revealed to self-observation, like the tip of an iceberg protruding from the water, if all mental life is an iceberg. As psychology turned into an independent science, methods for objective research of the psyche and the method of observation, among them, developed 2. Observation serves as one of the methods of knowing psychic reality to the extent that the latter has external manifestations, and with the subtlety and depth that can be provided by the theory within the framework of which certain observations are carried out and its data are interpreted.

Soviet psychology proceeds from the Marxist understanding of the active transformative essence of human activity. Research by domestic psychologists is based on the principles of the unity of consciousness and activity, general structure external and internal activities, the relationship between meaning and personal meaning that form consciousness (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev). These principles constitute the methodological basis for the application of the observation method in empirical psychological research and suggest the possibility of studying different levels of mental reflection based on identifying their regulatory role in activity.

What can you observe? The object of psychological observation is the one who is being observed - individual(or animal), a group of people in their joint activities, community. Subject of observation there can only be external exteriorized components of activity: a) motor components of practical and gnostic actions; movements, movements and immobile states of people; speed and direction of movement; distances between them; contacts, shocks, blows; joint actions (groups of people); b) speech acts, their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of lexical, grammatical and phonetic system; c) facial expressions and pantomimes, expression of sounds; d) external manifestations of some vegetative reactions: redness or paleness of the skin, change in breathing rhythm, sweating, etc. , a combination of the listed characteristics. Observables can be situations, arising in natural life and artificially created in an experiment, differing in types of activities, interactions of people with each other, spontaneous and organized, etc.

The factors that primarily determine the complexity of knowing the “internal through observing the external” are, firstly, the polysemy of connections between external manifestations and the subjective mental reality behind it, and, secondly, the multi-level hierarchical structure of mental phenomena. Due to the first, the same behavioral event can be associated with different mental processes. For example, the famous Russian psychologist A.F. Lazursky, who relied mainly on observations in the “Science of Characters” he developed, considered the presence of a large number of automatic reflex “spontaneous” movements after a period of rest as a manifestation of mobility - a stable characteristic of the human motor sphere, noting that a sharp increase in the number of such movements can be caused by a number of other reasons - affect, excitement under the influence of alcohol, etc. And vice versa, the same emotional experience can have different manifestations: one person turns pale in anger, the other blushes. Due to the second of these points, the same observed motor act may indicate different levels of mental regulation of the effector. For example, prolonged fixation of gaze on any object may be a manifestation of perceptual attention during a person’s conscious attempts to identify this object, that is, a consequence of high-level regulation of the oculomotor center. But the same immobility of gaze can manifest itself as a result of the lack of activation of the oculomotor centers due to the “load” of consciousness with some other task.

In connection with these specific features of the subject studied by psychology, a number of rules were formulated for the application of observation:

1. Conduct repeated systematic observations of this behavior in repeating and changing situations, which makes it possible to separate random coincidences from stable regular relationships.

2. Do not make hasty conclusions; be sure to put forward and test alternative assumptions regarding what mental reality is behind the observed behavior.

3. Compare particular conditions for the appearance of observed behavior with the general situation. Consideration in the general context of large communities ( general situation, personality as a whole, in relation to a child - stages of mental development, etc.) often changes the psychological meaning of what is observed.

Another feature of psychological observation is that presence of observer can significantly change the observed behavior, since both the person and the animal are not indifferent to the fact that they are being observed. To minimize this influence, it is necessary to make sure that the observer can see while remaining invisible. There are several ways to do this: a) “become familiar,” that is, often be present in the environment surrounding the observed, being deep in one’s work and, as if not paying attention to the observed; b) explain the presence of the observer for some purpose acceptable to the observed, for example, to explain school teacher your presence in the lesson with the desire to master the methods of teaching the subject; c) replace the observer with recording equipment (cinema camera, video recorder, television transmitter), which, firstly, confuses the observed somewhat less and, secondly, ensures accurate recording; d) conduct observation from a dark room, separated from the room where the observed are located, by glass with one-way light conductivity - Gesell glass and e) photography and filming with a hidden camera. The last three methods are not always available, and the last two, moreover and mainly, pose a difficult ethical problem, since they encroach on a person’s inner world without his permission. Therefore, we can agree with P. Fress, who believes that since the observer is most often openly present and thereby introduces new conditions into the observed process itself, only his modesty, tact, and ability to be as close as possible to the observed weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.

Specific difficulties for observation in psychology are represented by such features of mental phenomena as their unique nature, uniqueness And very small(fractions of a second) or very long duration. Due to the dependence on many factors, which may also be present in different combinations, the manifestations of the same mental property or process are unique. Here we mean not only such complex formations as personality or interpersonal interactions - even simple working movements in strictly constant conditions become stereotypical, identical to one another after thousands of repetitions. In Landis' experiments in which subjects experienced genuine emotions of fear and embarrassment, it was not possible to establish the typical involuntary facial expressions that expressed them: each subject had his own characteristic set of facial reactions 3.

Very short-term actions are not directly visible. For example, some distinguishable emotional expressions last 1/8 s and go unnoticed even by experienced observers, as Haggard and Isaacs showed. To observe and record them, high-speed filming is usually used. If the duration of the process under study is too long, when it is not possible to observe it continuously (for example, the development of interaction between a group of people while performing a common task throughout the entire working day), a time sampling technique is used, that is, observation is carried out intermittently.

The second group of specific characteristics of observation in psychology is associated with the characteristics of the human observer.

One of the main characteristics of human perception is selectivity, which is determined by the general focus of the activity (toys are “catchy” for a child, tailoring is “catchy” for a tailor, etc.). Selection in perception occurs under the influence of semantic, target and operational installations person, and also depends on the physical parameters of the object - its intensity, proximity, size, etc. It is known that the beneficial effect of attitudes consists in sensitizing perception (that is, increasing sensitivity) to influences that are significant to the observer. However, overly fixed attitudes are a kind of blinders on the eyes; if there is some uncertainty in stimulation, they lead to errors of perception and contain the danger of unnecessary bias in the interpretation of what is observed.

Another source of observer bias may be the well-known phenomenon of self-projection onto observed behavior. He appeared most clearly in anthropomorphic interpretations of animal behavior. The phenomenon of projection is provoked by the fact that the inner side of behavior is open to self-observation; a person has the illusion that much is becoming clear, and therefore there is a temptation to transfer this explanation to the behavior of another. A special critical position of the observer is needed when interpreting observation data in order to eliminate the influence of this source of error.

The possibilities of direct observation are also limited by a number of individual characteristics of the observer. The volume of human simultaneous perception does not exceed 5-7 discrete objects. To simultaneously observe a large number of objects, it is necessary either to increase the number of observers, or to use recording equipment (cinema, video recording) in addition to human perception. Observers differ in their susceptibility to influences from different modalities (mainly visual or auditory types), the predominant development of the ability to concentrate or distribute attention, memory characteristics, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc. 4 All these individual properties of the observer leave an imprint on the quality and content of observations and are one of the reasons leading to significant differences in observations made simultaneously by several observers of the behavior of the same object. Some reduction in the influence of these factors can only be achieved through targeted observation training.

Relationship between observation and theory. One of the significant specific characteristics of the psychological method of observation is the much closer connection between observation and the theoretical position of the observer than in any other science. Here we mean the influence of the initial theoretical premises of the study (up to the understanding of the subject of psychology) not only on the choice of object and subject of observation, but also on the organization of the observation process itself and the interpretation of its results. Let's illustrate this with an example. For a behaviorist, the whole interest lies in the study of behavior. Thinking for Watson is a “skill of the larynx,” and therefore, when exploring the nature of thinking, he limits himself to observing subtle movements of the muscles of the speech apparatus. For the Gestalt psychologist Köhler, the main thing in solving intellectual problems was “insight” (sudden grasp of the relations of the situation as a whole), therefore, in his studies of the thinking of great apes, he observed the whole variety of their behavior in a free field, isolating from it behavioral acts leading to a solution. Consequently, with a common goal - studying the nature of thinking - different theoretical positions led to the creation of fundamentally different observation methods (different subjects of research, different objects and subjects of observation, different observation schemes and interpretation of its results) and, of course, to fundamentally different conclusions.

Thus, the theoretical idea of ​​the nature and properties of the psychic reality being studied is included in the observation methodology as its determining component. This state of affairs is consistent with the understanding of the essence scientific method as “the theory put into action” in the words of the Bulgarian Marxist N. Stefanov.

The validity of the statement about the connection between observation and theory is obvious for observations aimed at testing hypotheses. It seems, however, that this statement should also be extended to exploratory studies, in which the general direction of interpretation of observations is determined by the entire sum of psychological knowledge and ideas of the researcher and, consequently, his theoretical orientation.

Let's move on to the issues of organizing scientific research using the observation method. All the main aspects of the organization are recorded, as noted above, in a specific observation method.

Purposes of surveillance

From the point of view of preliminary knowledge about the reality being studied, scientific research is divided into exploratory research, the purpose of which is to first become acquainted with the subject of research and the development of hypotheses, and research aimed at testing hypotheses.

Usually the so-called exploratory research, which is carried out at the beginning scientific development any area, is carried out extensively, since the goal is to obtain the most complete description of all phenomena inherent in this area, to cover it entirely. This is the goal of the famous Soviet psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on observation methods, calls the goal generally observe, to observe everything that an object manifests itself in, without selecting any specific manifestations of it. Moyman called this observation expectant. An example of such a study is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova, whose goal was to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents through systematic, detailed, daily observation of students during lessons, preparation of homework, pioneer, club work, various competitions, behavioral characteristics and relationships with comrades, teachers, parents, facts related to interests , plans for the future, attitude towards oneself, claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations between children, arguments, and remarks were recorded. Even little things were recorded. Thus, the general goal of obtaining a description of all manifestations of new developments in a child’s mental development during adolescence determined the widest possible coverage of all types of adolescent activities.

Observation is structured completely differently if the purpose of the research is specific and strictly defined. Under the pressure of this goal, only the necessary facts and phenomena are selected during observation. Maiman called this observation exploring or choosing. Let us take an example of such an observation from the study of J. Piaget, who considered the idea of ​​an object as a prototype of cognitive development as a whole. To study one of the stages of development at which a child combines a general idea of ​​an object with an “inside” attitude, the researcher, from all possible types of child activity, chose for observation only manipulative games and only with toys (objects) that have a cavity accessible from the outside. Observations have shown that the ability to nest objects within each other occurs later than the motor skills required for this. Observations (combined with theory!) have revealed the nature of the difficulties that a child faces when trying to fit one object into another: he thought that two objects cannot be in the same place at the same time, but now he learns that one object can to be inside another. He must somehow combine this information and make the discovery that the two objects - one inside the other - are similar to one in terms of movement (the "container" and its contents move as a single unit), but remain two objects that can be separated from each other .

Thus, cognitive goals lead to the selection of the subject content of observation - what to watch and what is considered observed fact, and thereby set requirements for the degree of selectivity of observation, and the division of the observed into units. Only in very rare cases, observations that are external to the direction of the practical or research work in which they were made by a psychologist - random observations - lead to major discoveries. Thus, the psychoneurologist Feret discovered the psychogalvanic reflex in 1888. He noticed the concern of a woman who had very dry skin and felt, especially in cold, dry weather, sparks from her skin and hair. In collaboration with the famous doctor D'Arsonval, he measured the static charge of the skin, and then discovered that under the influence of certain stimuli (blue glass in front of the eyes, the smell of ether, fairly strong emotions), this charge disappears.

The objectives of observation may differ in the degree of generality of the issue being studied. Moreover, the more specific the goal, the more selective the observation and the more it is determined “from above,” that is, the more strongly it depends on the observer’s prior knowledge about the area being studied as a whole. This position is illustrated using the example of highlighting M.Ya. Basov 3 levels of goals in research on child psychology. The main goal is to study the development of the child’s personality, the goal of the second level is to study the individual characteristics of the personality of an individual child, and, finally, a private goal concerns the study of any one aspect of the child’s mental life, for example, the study of his emotional sphere. To obtain a reliable result in the latter case, you need to know what in the observed emotional expressive movements is a manifestation of the child’s individual characteristics, and what is inherent to a given age.

Observation program (scheme)

It was noted above that the observation scheme includes a list of observation units, language and form of description of the observed.

Selecting Observation Units. After the object and the situation in which the observation of its activity will occur is selected in accordance with the purpose of observation, the researcher is faced with the task of conducting observation and describing its results. An observed event becomes an empirical fact for science only if it is somehow described by the observer. Any description system requires that the process being described be discrete. Therefore, before observing, it is necessary to isolate from the continuous flow of behavior certain aspects of it, individual acts accessible to direct observation - units of behavior, which at the same time are units of observation. Isolating them allows you to: a) limit observation to a certain framework: indicate in what properties, manifestations, relationships the process being studied is perceived by the observer; b) choose a specific language for describing what is observed, as well as c) a form of recording observation data, d) systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical “view” of the phenomenon being studied. The selected units of observation must be consistent with the purpose of the study and provide possible interpretations of the observation results from the adopted theoretical position. This position is well illustrated by the above example of the study of thinking within the framework of behaviorist and gestalt theories: Watson chose micromovements of the muscles of the human articulatory apparatus as units of observation, Köhler - holistic behavioral acts, each of which consists of a number of movements and is ensured by the inclusion of almost the entire motor monkey apparatus.

So, units of observation can vary greatly in the size and complexity of the isolated “segment” of behavior and in content (see p. 6, where an approximate list of what can be the subject of observation is indicated).

Recording Observations. The choice of description language is dictated by the purpose of observation and the theoretical tradition adopted by the researcher. Since the goals of hypothesis testing and exploratory research are different, the methods for recording observational data are often also different.

General requirements for recording observations. I. The main requirement is that the surveillance recording must be factual, that is, the person reading it can “see” the picture of the observed phenomenon with his own eyes. “Every fact, every observation must be recorded in the form in which this fact or phenomenon existed as something real” (M.Ya. Basov, p. 125). 2. The entry must include description of the whole situation(objective and social) in which the observed event occurs (recording the “background” in the terminology of M.Ya. Basov). 3. The record must be complete in the sense that it must reflect the reality being studied as completely as possible in accordance with the purpose.

Recording Observations in an Exploratory Study. Since, when conducting exploratory research, preliminary knowledge of the reality being studied is minimal, the observer’s task is to record manifestations of the activity of the object of observation in all their diversity, the recording must be quite complete, most often it is made in the form of a free description in terms of a naturally formed language. You need to write down events as such - what happened and how exactly, and not your impressions of what happened. M.Ya. Basov believes that in terms of completeness, accuracy and the absence of assessments and interpretive aspects, the recording of observations should approach photography and calls it “photographic” in contrast to interpretive and generalized descriptive. However, this requirement that the recording be “photographic” should not be taken literally. As a rule, it is very difficult for an observer to get by in a description without including the psychological interpretation of certain moments, which cannot themselves be the subject of observation from the outside and are deduced by the observer from behavioral facts as their internal basis. According to A.P. Boltunov one or two apt words giving psychological characteristics the experiences of the observed person, discerned from his behavior, are better than the flow long descriptions, in which the forest is not visible because of the trees, since the objectivity of the description is not reduced, and the understanding of the inner side becomes more accessible and justified due to the presence of a direct subjective impression. An example of a good diary entry for observing the behavior of a girl in an orphanage is the following. The words underlined in the text give a psychological interpretation of what is observed.

“Then she gets up (from the bed), takes the boards and with these boards rushes at the older girls who came for me. Swings at those lying in bed; with fear jump up; screaming and roaring begins. She is very happy that she did all this: “Oh, how they are afraid of me!” - she says with laughter" (Boltunov A.P. Pedagogical characteristics of a child. M.;L., 1926, p. 12). An example of a bad recording of a generalized evaluative type:

“The children listened with interest to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale “The Starry Sky” and themselves concluded about the beauty of good and the ugliness of evil.” (Ibid., p. 18).

The recording does not indicate in what form the children made this conclusion and therefore nothing can be concluded about the degree of understanding of the fairy tale and the level of development of moral judgments in children - what is most interesting to a psychologist and teacher.

Typically, exploratory studies use forms of observational records in the form of a continuous protocol or diary - an observation is carried out, the date, time, place and situation of observation are indicated in the record, the social and subject environment and, if necessary, the context of previous events (for example, observation of a person’s behavior in the evening, after a hard day at work, at home in the common kitchen of a communal apartment, during a conflict with a neighbor).

Continuous protocol is a regular one without any headings entered in advance on the sheet where the recording is made. In order for the record to be complete, it is written during observation and requires, firstly, the observer’s complete concentration on observation and recording, and, secondly, it is highly desirable to use conventions or shorthand to speed up the recording. A continuous protocol is also used for so-called preliminary observations in the initial phase of the study, which is aimed at solving a particular problem. Preliminary observations are aimed at clarifying the object and situation of observation and determining the repertoire of behavior (compiling a list of observation units).

Students will be able to become familiar with the features of continuous recording during preliminary observations when working on two tasks, one of which is devoted to the analysis of the work activity of press workers at a garment factory, the other - the behavior of a child in an unfamiliar situation.

Diary form Observational records are used for multi-day observations, sometimes lasting months and years, such as in longitudinal studies of child mental development 5 . The diary is kept in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of entries. To maintain the accuracy of observations, the accuracy of terminology and its unambiguous use throughout the duration of the study is necessary. The record should reflect as fully as possible what was observed. The criterion for the appropriate completeness of registration can be the accurate transmission of the meaning of the observed phenomena. It is advisable to record during observation; If this is not possible, then write it down from memory. At the same time, you shouldn’t put off recording for a long time. Stern's research (A.P. Boltunov) showed that distortions in the description of paintings viewed by adults intelligent people, increase by about 0.3% per day compared to direct reproduction and consist in the transformation of objects (for example, a ball turned into the sun), attributing to objects possible but absent actions in the picture, distortion of spatial relationships and meaning, etc. In practice, combined recording has proven its worth, when significant moments are recorded during the observation, and details are recorded immediately after the observations, and better in the situation where the observations were made, since the situation itself contributes to a more complete reproduction of everything that happened.

Recording observations in a study designed to test initial theoretical assumptions. The significant difference between recording observations and the previous case is determined by the fact that, firstly, the purpose of the study is to study only a certain type of activity, that is, not as wide as in search studies, and, secondly, the observer has preliminary theoretical knowledge about the subject research expressed as a hypothesis to be tested. Both of these circumstances allow the researcher in advance, before conducting the observation, to indicate the most appropriate categories for the purpose of the study in which the observed activity will be recorded 5 .

Categories are concepts meaning certain classes of observable phenomena (A. Panto, R. Grawitz). They must be defined operationally, not overlap with other categories, have the same degree of generality as others, and express a certain aspect of solving the research problem. For example, the theoretical basis for the method of motor-temporal analysis of elementary working movements, proposed by F. Gilbert, was Bernstein’s understanding of biomechanical operation as a simple sum of successive movements, which can be sifted like grain in a sorting room. In the light of Gilbreth’s task of “saving working movements by eliminating unnecessary ones,” various options for preparatory operations were subjected to the most detailed analysis (16 out of 18 categories): removing, moving, installing, etc.

The categories may correspond to different levels of conceptualization of observation. They may emerge as a result of empirical generalization in preliminary research and be used to classify observed behaviors. The highest level of conceptualization occurs if the categories form a system, that is, a set of categories that covers all theoretically permissible manifestations of the process being studied. An example of such an observation system can be seen in the standard procedure proposed by R. Bales to describe the interaction of members of a small group when jointly solving a problem. The given 12 categories (participant “proposes a solution,” “expresses an opinion,” “expresses an attitude,” etc.) are based on assumptions about the stages of problem solving by the group and fully cover the possible units of observation reflecting the interactions of the participants in the discussion. During observation, the observer divides the statements of the discussion participants into these 12 classes, taking into account not only What each of them speaks, but also to whom he addresses, what is the emotional connotation of his statement, his place from the point of view of the 6 supposed stages of progress in solving the problem. Since it is assumed that any possible action can be subsumed under any of these categories, a number of them fully defined - relative to each other. In this sense, they represent a system as opposed to a list. Below we will call observation based on a system of categories systematized observation.

The “unit of observation - category” relationship is specified by the definition of the category. Sometimes a class of observed phenomena contains only one unit, but more often several different observation units are classified under the same category. For example, when analyzing the stages of solving a problem in a study using the “reasoning out loud” method, all speech utterances of the subject, each of which contains a complete thought (the subject asks himself a question, evaluates the condition, makes a decision, etc.) and is considered as a unit of observation, is broken down by gelstatt psychologist K Dunker into two categories: intermediate and functional solutions. Only one unit falls into the last category, since one “functional solution” is enough for the subject to instantly grasp the essence - the structure of the problem, and, therefore, the solution to the problem. There can be many “intermediate” solutions that fall under the same category, which reflects their equality as preliminary attempts in relation to a functional solution.

It should be emphasized that subsuming a unit of observation into a category - essentially the initial stage of interpreting what is being observed - can occur not only after the observation, as shown in the example with Duncker, but also during the observation itself. This is especially the case in the case of pre-selected and rigid, precisely
limited categories, as, for example, in the Bales technique 7 which does not provide for a meaningful description of units of behavior. An observer, identifying a unit of behavior during a group discussion, must immediately place it under one of 12 categories and record this in the observation protocol.

Above, we discussed the issues of choosing means for qualifying observed events, that is quality their descriptions. However, the observation method allows us to obtain quantitative descriptions observed events during the observation itself, if the categories for description are defined in advance. There are 2 main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: I) assessment by the observer of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling; 2) measuring the duration of the observed event - timing.

Scaling in observation is carried out mainly by the scoring method. The differentiation of intensity assessment increases in proportion to the number of points on the scale. Typically 3-10 point scales are used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as a descriptive adjective, for example: very strong, strong, average, weak, very weak. Sometimes a graphical form of the scale is used, in which the assessment is expressed by the value of a segment on a straight line, the extreme points of which mark the lower and upper points. Attribution of scores can also be carried out retrospectively, as a result of long-term observations in Everyday life. This method is sometimes used to test individual characteristics of a person. In a study by Ya. Strelyau, based on retrospective assignments of ratings to specific forms of student behavior in ordinary school life (assessed on a 5-point system of 10 categories of behavior), a scale was developed to determine reactivity as a property of temperament.

Timing is one of the variants of the time interval method. Its second type - the time sampling method - is described above. To time-measure a behavioral act or some other external manifestation in the process of direct observation, you must: a) be able to quickly and accurately isolate it from the observed behavior (qualify it); b) establish in advance the so-called fixation points - what is considered the beginning and end of the act; d) have hardware in the form of a chronometer, stopwatch or watch with a second hand. The choice of a time meter is dictated not only by the required measurement accuracy and available capabilities, but also by some ethical issues due to the fact that timing the activity of the observed person may be unpleasant and disturb him. The timing technique is described in more detail in training task No. I.

In real research, various methods for describing observed behavior (qualitative and quantitative) can be used simultaneously, complementing each other. For example, in a study by S. Meshcheryakova, the identification of various components of the animation complex in an infant during direct observation of the child’s reaction to a toy or an adult communicating with him included a quantitative assessment of the intensity of vocalization, motor animation, smile, and concentration of gaze using a scoring method. Ratings were given separately for each of the four components of the revitalization complex during specified periods of observation (time sampling method) after the appearance of an adult or a toy in the child’s field of vision. Standardization of observation conditions included the organization of influences, control of side factors (noise, other people) that cause the child’s orientation, specified observation periods, and their number.

The most common ways to categorize observations are two: symbolic recording and standard protocol.
Recording in characters. Preliminary knowledge of the categories in which the results of observations will be recorded makes it possible to introduce manual methods of recording observations faster than verbal recording - various options for symbolic recording, in addition to shorthand, in which each category is indicated by one symbol. The following types of symbols are used: pictograms - graphic images-signs, alphabetic symbols, mathematical symbols and combinations of the last two.

Below is a protocol of observations of the work of a multi-loom weaver from the study of E.A. Klimova. The specific purpose of these observations is to establish a “photograph” of the weaver's working time. This “photograph” makes it possible to judge the quantity and sequence of different types of work, transitions, and the quantitative relationships of different indicators. Essentially, to produce such a “photograph,” it is necessary to maintain a protocol of selective observation, in which the observer, from the entire variety of external manifestations of various aspects of mental life, selects and records only one specific aspect, in this case, the performance of labor actions. This protocol uses continuous notation in alphabetical and mathematical symbols. The recording is made in a specially lined notebook. Column I indicates the serial number of the action or the “current time” every 60 seconds; in column 2 - the labor action being performed; in column 3 - the machine that is idle at that moment.

The entries in column 2 from top to bottom mean: on the working loom No. I the weaver inspects the fabric, on loom 2 the thread breaks and the work is completed, on loom 3 she inspects the fabric, the weaver herself stopped loom No. 3. The implementation of such a protocol entry turns out to be more compact in time than maintaining a text protocol by about 10 times.
Students will become familiar with another type of symbolic recording (in the form of pictograms) of elementary working movements using the example of a sample observation protocol when working on educational task No. I.

It should be emphasized that since all symbolism is developed before observation, it goes without saying that this method of recording is applicable to recording only cyclically repeating behavior with a relatively small (no more than 50) variety of behavioral acts. Therefore, most often, recording in symbols is used when observing labor processes.

Standard Protocol It is also used for selective observation in cases where the number of categories is very limited (10-15)> and the researcher can be satisfied with recording only the frequency of their occurrence. A significant limitation in the number of categories can be achieved by isolating a single and fairly narrow aspect of behavior while ignoring all others. For example, in N. Flanders’ method, 10 categories are used to analyze the interaction between teacher and student in the classroom, the list of which is given below.

From the table above it can be seen that Flanders’ method selects only verbal interaction from all possible implementations and considers verbal interaction only from the standpoint of balance in the ratio of teacher initiation - student response and the nature of interaction (directive - non-directive). For example, category 9 (“The teacher asks a question”) includes many student questions with different expressions of interpersonal relationships and the student’s emotional state. All these aspects of interaction are ignored and completely lost for the researcher, since the protocol contains only information that the student’s response was initiated by himself or caused by the teacher. The noted drawback is a continuation of the great advantages of this method of registration, namely: firstly, the completeness and accuracy of recording all cases of verbal interaction in various situations (in different lessons of different teachers in different subjects) and, secondly, leveling the influence of personality and individual characteristics observer on the results of observation. P. Fress drew attention to the first of these points, arguing that only analytical observation can be complete. The importance of the second point (the problem of observer agreement) is so great that it can negate all the results of the study due to the unreliability of the results when there is disagreement in the data obtained by different observers in the same situation.

The standard protocol is in the form of a table. In Flanders' method it looks like this.

The proposed form of recording coded events is convenient for subsequent mathematical processing of data.

Types of organization of psychological observation 8

Psychological research employs a wide variety of forms of observation; there is no single and comprehensive classification of them, so we will limit ourselves to naming the most important types of observation.

Systematic observation versus random characterized primarily by the regularity of observations throughout the entire study period. The time intervals between individual observations are determined by the nature of the subject being studied, external conditions that determine the timing of funding, and can vary widely. In literature, especially foreign language literature, the term “systematic” is used in the sense of “systematized,” the definition of which was introduced earlier in this text.

Depending on the observer's position in relation to the object, observation can be open or hidden when an observer, for example, looks at an object of observation through a Gesell glass. How the subspecies is distinguished included observation: the researcher is a member of the group of people he observes, a full participant in the observed events. Participant observation, like observation from the outside, can be open or hidden (when the observer acts incognito, without informing other members of the group about the fact of observation). Participant observation, on the one hand, allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events may affect the objectivity of the observer's report. Some types of observation may be intermediate between participant observation and non-participant observation. For example, a teacher’s observations of a class during classes, a psychotherapist’s observation: here the observer is included in the situation differently than the observed individuals; their positions are “not equal” from the point of view of managing the situation.

Depending on the situations observations can be distinguished observation field, laboratory And provoked in natural conditions. Field observation is carried out in conditions natural to the life of the observed person or animal and its requirement is the lack of initiative on the part of the observer of the phenomena being studied. Field observation makes it possible to study the natural life of the “object” of observation with minimal distortion (due to the limitations of the situation), but its disadvantage is that it is very labor intensive, and also that the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control; observation here is often expectant and unsystematic.

Laboratory observation allows you to study a person in a more convenient and controlled situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can significantly distort the results obtained. In developmental psychology, provoked observations approach the form of a “natural experiment” - a method proposed by A.F. Lazursky.
(M.Ya.Baoov).

An important criterion is chronological organization of observation. From this point of view we can distinguish longitudinal("longitudinal"), periodic And single observation. Longitudinal observation is carried out over a long period of time, usually a number of years, and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The results of such studies are usually recorded in the form of diaries and widely cover the behavior, lifestyle, and habits of the observed person.

Periodic observations are the most common type of chronological organization of observation. Unlike longitudinal, it is carried out over certain, usually precisely specified periods of time.

Single or single observations are usually presented in the form of a single case report. They can be either unique or typical manifestations of the process or phenomenon being studied.

In conclusion, it must be said that the listed classifications do not oppose one another, but reflect independent criteria of classifications that complement each other. Therefore, the methodology of a real case study can combine different types, for example, field observation can be carried out systematically as part of an exploratory * study.

Literature

Basov M.Ya. Selected psychological works. M., 1975. 432 p.
Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1975. 302 p.
Rubinstein SL. Basics general psychology. M., 1946, p. 31-37.
Experimental psychology: In 6 issues/ Ed. P. Fressa, J. Piaget. M., 1966, issue. I, 611 pp.

1. For more details on the relationship between observation and experiment, see the Appendix.
2. In the scientific literature, quite often the terms “observation”, “external observation” and “objective observation” are used as synonyms.
3. The idea that one can judge the emotion a person is experiencing by facial expression is valid only in relation to generally accepted conventional forms of expression.
4. For a detailed analysis of the influence of individual characteristics of the observer on the quality of observations, see the book: Basov M.Ya. Favorite psychological works. M., 1975, p. 44-50.
5. An observation diary dedicated to this particular topic can be found in the book of the Soviet psychologist N.A. Menchinskaya "Diary of the development of a child (from birth to 8 years)."
6. This type of observation is called categorized.
7. Practical processing of the Bales technique is the subject of one of the training assignments.
8. Different types of observation imply differences in the conditions of observation and, consequently, different activities of the observer.