Linguistic and extralinguistic factors that formed the phonetic and grammatical structure of modern English. The problem of classifying styles. Extralinguistic factors as a basis for functional and stylistic differentiation

Considering such a phenomenon as speech communication, we will see that many points influence its success. One of them will be extralinguistic factors. The definition of this concept, what it includes, we, among other things, will analyze in the article. Let's start with the most important term and its components.

Speech situation

What is the speech situation in foreign and native speech? In fact, this is the first stage of communication between people. In modern reality, these situations can be both natural (two acquaintances met on the street and started talking), and artificial (schoolchildren were asked to speculate in class about social problems region).

There are many varieties and topics of speech communication in our world. Together they enrich the spiritual life of mankind, our culture.

The specific circumstances against which human communication takes place. It is the starting point of any of our speech actions: depending on it, a model of dialogue is built, communication with the audience, the search for topics of conversation, the channel of conversation, and so on.

Sample text speech situation:

• Friendly conversation.
• Presentation with a report.
• Explanation to superiors.
• Advice on buying a computer.
• Explaining to the baby why matches are not a toy, and so on.

Types of verbal communication

In foreign and native speech, three main types of speech communication can be distinguished:

• official, business. This is the communication of a subordinate with a boss, a teacher with a student, a doctor with a patient, and so on. It is characterized by the most stringent regulation of speech etiquette. Violation of any of its rules can even threaten with serious sanctions.
• semi-official. This is a conversation of colleagues, a group of students, relatives. The norms of speech etiquette here are already more blurred. Communication is built more according to the rules characteristic of this small group.
• Informal. Conversations with friends, lovers, acquaintances, within the family. Compliance with speech etiquette here is rather conditional. Tonality, topics of communication are free. People here limit themselves to only their own moral ideas, morality, tact.

Components of a speech situation

To better understand the main topic of our conversation, we highlight the main components of verbal communication:

• Members. There are both direct participants - the addressee and addresser, and third parties - observers, listeners. The presence of the latter forms the situation itself, affects the course of communication.
• Place and time of communication. A very important aspect that determines the style of communication. A conversation on the street, a conversation at a party, a speech in front of a respected audience - various speech situations. Internally, they are divided into two branches:
  • Canonical - pronouncing a speech synchronously with the moment of its perception. The addressee and addressee are at the same time in the same place.
  • Non-canonical - the time of pronunciation does not coincide with the time of perception, the speech itself does not have a specific addressee (for example, a public report, talking on the phone, communicating through letters, etc.)
• The subject of communication.
• Purpose of communication. The result that the participants in communication want to see as the result of their speech interaction. Goals are divided into the following groups:
  • directly expressed.
  • Direct. In particular, the reception and transmission of data.
  • Indirect.
  • Long-term.
  • The so-called intellectual: criticism, search for truth, discussion, clarification, and so on.
• Feedback between participants in the dialogue. There are two categories here:
  • Active (dialogue).
  • Passive (example - the text of a written response).

Extralinguistic and prosodic means

Now let's move from all verbal communication closer to the main topic of the conversation. Communication uses prosodic and extralinguistic means of communication. Their role is very multifaceted:

• regulation of the flow of speech.
• Economy of language means of communication.
• Anticipation, addition and substitution of speech statements.
• Expression of an emotional state.

Each of these areas has its own set of communication tools:

• Extralinguistics - dilution of speech with pauses, the inclusion of psychological manifestations: laughter, crying, sighing, nervous coughing, etc.
• Prosody - such intonation-rhythmic constructions as loudness and pitch of the voice, stress, timbre, etc.

Means of prosodic and extralinguistics

Let's look at both prosodic and extralinguistic factors, styles.

So, prosodic.

Intonation- all the variety of language means associated with the voice, which do not require concentration of attention on the content of what was said.

Speech rate:

• Less than 200 wpm is slow.
• About 350 words per minute - calm.
• About 500 wpm is fast.

Speech flow (mode): rhythmic, cyclic, jerky, angular, rounded.

Articulation- clear and precise or slurred, "chewed" pronunciation.

Now let's move on to extralinguistics.

Cough, shortness of breath. It can manifest itself as a reaction to external stimuli, talk about health problems, or be dictated by the desire to “say” something to the interlocutor with these sounds.

Pause. The reasons for it can be different: attaching importance to what has been said, thoughtfulness, a means of gaining time, distraction to something extraneous. Often a pause is allowed, noticing that the interlocutor wants to say something.

Researchers believe that the value of pauses in a conversation is sometimes almost equal to the value of what was said.

Laughter- a means to defuse the situation, to make the conversation somewhat emotional. There may be several reasons for it: something comical, funny was said, I want to express my attitude towards something to the interlocutor.

Laughter can be both natural and artificial, strained.

inarticulate sounds. Many in the course of a conversation grunt, sigh, "shout", "moo", etc. These sounds can indicate both an attitude towards the subject of conversation, and reveal internal state person.

But that is not all.

Other factors of successful communication

In addition to extralinguistics and prosodic, there are also takestes means of communication: a kiss, a handshake, a pat or other touch.

Speaking about the successful building of verbal communication, one should not bypass proxemics - the distance between the interlocutors. It can be personal, intimate, close, public, social. An important role is also played by the orientation of communication - an angular, independent, competitive-defensive position.

And the image of the interlocutor concludes the success of the dialogue - his manner of dressing, decorating himself, doing his hair and makeup.

Examples of the use of prosodic and extralinguistic means in speech

Let's see how widely we use the means of extralinguistics and prosodic in speech and how they can characterize us:

• The high voice is used by us to convey strong emotions, both positive and negative: joy, anger, delight, fear, enthusiasm.
• A clear pronunciation of words, the absence of "swallowing" suffixes and endings is used to declare oneself as a disciplined, responsible person.
• Fast speech is characteristic of an excited, worried interlocutor. Slow can indicate both arrogance and equanimity, as well as fatigue or grief. Calm speech characterizes a thoughtful, balanced person.
• If the pace of the conversation gradually revives, speeds up, this indicates inspiration from the subject of the conversation, immersion in its topic.
• A brisk, hasty manner of speech communication is characteristic of an impulsive, temperamental person who is confident in his words. But if his speech at the same time is fragmentary, chaotic, characterized by sharp changes in the speed of speaking, then this is evidence of timidity, embarrassment, excitement, inconstancy and fussiness.
• If a person pronounces words correctly, adheres to a certain cyclical conversation, this indicates his severity, pedantry, firmness, emotional coldness.

However, we must not forget that gestures and facial expressions also belong to the means of communication. If a person speaks measuredly, clearly, but at the same time frantically gesticulates, “runs around” with his eyes, twists his lips, then this betrays his excitement, uncertainty. Therefore, it is always worth paying attention to the fact that speech and non-verbal means of expression are synchronous during a conversation.

Of great importance in speech communication is the richness of the lexicon, the general outlook of the interlocutor. In addition to extralinguistic factors, this indicator significantly affects the success of verbal communication.

What are extralinguistic factors?

Now a few more definitions of this phenomenon. Extralinguistic (social) factors of communication are parameters of social (extralinguistic) reality that cause both frequent and global changes in speech.

Also, style-forming, extra-linguistic, extra-linguistic factors of communication are called a lot of phenomena of extra-linguistic reality, in which and under the influence of which speech acquires a lot of its style characteristics, as well as the organization and selection of language means.

Components of the speech situation as non-linguistic factors

Note that the components of the speech situation can also be called extralinguistic factors. "Extra" = "over": in the sense of something that is not studied directly by linguistics (the science of language).

Let's remember these components:

• Speaking.
• Destination.
• The subject of the conversation.
• Purpose of communication.
• Communication environment.

What are the social factors of verbal communication?

Extralinguistic factors globally include:

• A number of demographic parameters (density, mode of settlement).
• Age difference.
• The social structure of society.
• The number of people who are native speakers of the language in which the dialogue takes place.
• Cultural and linguistic features.
• written traditions.
• Language culturally conditioned contacts.

So we have considered extralinguistic factors and means of communication. These are all those extra-linguistic features that, depending on the correct application, can make communication both successful and unsatisfactory.

In Russian linguistics, style is usually regarded as a speech phenomenon, but there is another point of view, according to which the functional style is a linguistic phenomenon. It is legitimate to combine both positions. Functional style is the realization of the possibilities of the language in live speech communication.

In the linguistic consciousness of the speaker, there is an idea of ​​the rules for creating a functional style.

Each functional style is not monolithic. We can talk about the core of style and its periphery.

(from the lecture) There is no unified classification of FS.

1. L.G. Bagrin-delimitation of spheres of communication

Budagov divides into spoken and written,

2. Based on language functions

Functions of communication-everyday-everyday style

F. sms-everyday-business, official-documentary, scientific

F. impact - journalistic and artistic-fictional style.

Common theory:

1. style-conversational (everyday-everyday, conversational-everyday, colloquial-everyday, Speaking)

2. book style - the sphere of official communication (scientific style, ODS, artistic style, religious, journalistic)

Extralinguistic factors:

The functional style is formed under the influence of basic extralinguistic factors, i.e. those phenomena of extralinguistic reality, under the influence of which the selection and organization of linguistic means takes place; speech acquires its own stylistic features.

Sphere of communication

Administrative and managerial

Socio-political

Aesthetic (art)

Purpose of communication

Communication of information

Impact on the reader/listener

Typical communication situation (formal/informal)

Secondary factors:

The form of the existence of speech

Oral - characterized by spontaneity, irreversibility, directly related to the time of pronunciation, more psychological, expresses a direct train of thought, operational, has the ability to directly influence the addressee, automatism of speech, the possibility of conscious selection decreases language units, makes it possible to convey information not only by verbal means. It is mainly represented in the domestic sphere, but also implemented in other areas in the form of public speech, in some genres of scientific speech, in the socio-political sphere - rallies, in some areas of legal communication (judicial speech).

Written - characterized by preliminary deliberation, preparedness, makes it possible to constantly refer to the text, improve it, logicality, coherence, compositional design.

The nature of the subject and addressee of speech

Individual - acts from itself, is directly related to the addressee of the speech

Collective - a representative of a group of people whose views he reflects and shares, is characteristic of the socio-political sphere

Abstract - the subject and addressee of the speech are depersonalized, typical for the official sphere of communication

Type of speech

Dialogue - characterized by a change of statements, replicas of two speakers, characterized by a direct connection of the statement with the situation, this is reflected in the syntactic structure: the use of simple syntactic constructions

A monologue is a speech addressed to oneself or others and not designed for the reaction of another person, it is distinguished by a sufficiently long length, compositional organization and semantic completeness, it can be carried out both in written and oral form.

It is difficult to draw a clear boundary between monologue and dialogue, since dialogicity, i.e. the expression of attitude towards the addressee (one of the main properties of speech, due to the social nature of the language) exists not only in the dialogue, but also in the monologue in a hidden form.

Preparedness or unpreparedness of speech

Extralinguistic parameters of official business style. Linguistic features of the official business style. Stylistic changes in official business speech. The system of genres of official business speech

Modern official business style is a functional variety of Russian literary language used in the field of public relations. Business speech serves as a means of communication between states, the state with an individual and society as a whole; a means of communication between enterprises, institutions, organizations; a means of official communication between people in production and in the service sector.

Formal business style refers to the book-written styles of the literary language. It is implemented in the texts of laws, orders, decrees, orders, contracts, acts, certificates, certificates, powers of attorney, in business correspondence of institutions. The oral form of official business speech is represented by a speech and report at meetings and conferences, judicial speech, official telephone conversation, and oral order.

The general extralinguistic and proper linguistic features of this style include the following:

1) accuracy, detail of presentation;

2) standardization of presentation;

3) the obligatory prescriptive nature of the presentation (voluntariness), accuracy that does not allow for two interpretations, standardization (strict composition of the text, selection of facts, ways of presenting ...), lack of emotionality, the nature of prescriptions.

A specific property of business speech is the expression of will. Voluntaryness in texts is expressed semantically (selection of words) and grammatically. So, in management documentation, we constantly meet with the forms of the first person of the verb (I ask, offer, order, congratulate), with modal forms, must (should, must, should, proposed). Sphere-administrative-legal. Purpose-prescriptions and instructions. main function is informational.

According to the theme and variety of genres in the style under consideration, there are two varieties:

1 - official documentary style And

2 - everyday business style.

In turn, in the official documentary style, one can single out

language of legislative documents activities related government agencies(Constitution of the Russian Federation, laws, charters), and

language of diplomatic acts associated with international relations(memorandum, communique, convention, statement).

In everyday business style, there are:

The language of official correspondence between institutions and organizations, on the one hand, and

The language of private business papers, on the other.

more genres of ODF: powers of attorney, job description, order, resolution, statement, business letter, characteristic ...

The effectiveness of speech communication depends on adequate perception and interpretation of the transmitted speech. Adequate interpretation is the correct interpretation by the recipient of the main idea of ​​the text in accordance with the intention of the communicator. Adequate perception is the correct assimilation by the recipient of what exactly the communicator wanted to say and the purpose of his statement.

Conditions for the effective implementation of the communicative goal:

The need for communication

· Communicative interest;

Attunement to the world of the interlocutor;

· The proximity of the worldview of the participants in communication;

The ability of the listener to understand the intention of the speaker;

· External circumstances (well-being of participants, the presence of outsiders);

Knowledge of etiquette standards.

Also, a strong influence on the outcome of communication is the creation of a positive communication climate (trust, openness), which helps to establish contact and relationships in the process of communication.

The creation of such a climate corresponds to the principles of G.P. Grice and J.N. Leach (question 37), as well as the basic psychological principles:

· The principle of equal security- Do not harm your partner. Avoid anything that can cause psychological or other damage to a partner, from insults to a contemptuous tone. Express disagreement in a peaceful, non-conflict way.

· The principle of decentral orientation- do not damage the cause of communication, do not forget the topic of discussion. The forces of the participants in communication should not be spent on protecting egocentric interests, but on finding the optimal solution to the problem. It is necessary to be able to analyze the problem from the point of view of another person, based on the interests of the case.

· The principle of the adequacy of what is perceived to what is said- do not harm what was said by deliberately distorting the position of the opponent from the desire to gain an advantage over the opponent.

The main factors contributing to the establishment of a favorable climate for speech communication:

Recognition of pluralism of opinions, existence of different points vision;

· Giving everyone the opportunity to express their opinion;

Providing equal opportunity get necessary information to justify their own position;

Awareness that the need for dialogue is dictated by the decision of vital important issues all aspects of communication;

The desire to find an interlocutor in the statements common points contact, opinion.

Also an important condition effective communication is the ability to listen. The reason for unwillingness to listen to the interlocutor may be a mental disagreement with the interlocutor, which leads to the desire to express one's opinion without taking into account the words said earlier by the interlocutor.

Hearing- the process of perception, comprehension, understanding of the speaker's speech. This is the ability to focus on the speech of the interlocutor, to single out ideas, emotions from communication with him, the ability to understand him, the willingness to contact him.

Two types of listening:

Non-reflexive. It is necessary to be attentively silent, not to interfere with the speech of the interlocutor. This type is used when the interlocutor is excited, emotional, wants to speak out. It is necessary to be able to recognize when the interlocutor wants intervention: in some cases, silence is taken for consent. It is necessary to interrupt the interlocutor in time and express your opinion, especially if it is oppositional.

Reflective. It is used when the interlocutor has no desire to express his opinion or is waiting for active support and approval. In this type of listening, it is necessary to intervene in the speech of the interlocutor in order to help him express his thoughts and in order to create favorable conditions for communication and understanding.

Additional terms effective listening.

A necessary condition for effective listening is eye contact between interlocutors. Speakers should look at each other carefully and interestedly.

Important condition effective listening - pay attention to the posture of the participants in the conversation. It can be used to understand whether the interlocutors are favorable, whether they listen to you, whether they agree with you.

Consider the allowable distance between interlocutors:

Interpersonal distance (friendly relations) - 0.5-1.2 m.

Social distance (social, business relations) - 1.2-3.7 m.

Public distance - from 3.7 m and more.

Observance of these boundaries creates favorable conditions for contact.

In addition, gestures, intonation, facial expressions speak about the state and attitude of the interlocutor to the conversation (question 39).

It is also desirable to show the interlocutor that you understand him. Ways:

1. Ask clarifying questions (For example: "What do you mean?").

2. Formulate the speaker's thoughts in your own words (For example: "As I understand you, you wanted to say ...").

3. Understand and reflect the speaker's feelings (“You are probably upset ...”).

4.Summarizing, i.e. summarize the ideas and thoughts of the speaker. (“With all this, as I understand it, you wanted to say ...”)

Another principle of listening is not to judge or give advice. They limit the freedom of expression of the interlocutor, affect their opinion and activity.

Laws of Communication:

1. The point is not what the sender reports, but what the recipient understands.

2. If the recipient misunderstands the message, then the sender is responsible. The responsibility for accurate communication lies with the sender.

Features of semantic perception:

1. Possibility of discrepancy in understanding the meaning of the interlocutors. To avoid this, it is necessary to take into account the direct meaning of the word, its ambiguity, compatibility with other words, etc.

2. "Illusion of comprehensibility" - a discrepancy between the participant's understanding of the meaning of the word and its actual content, with his confidence in correct understanding words. The illusion of understanding is associated with the perception of words often used by the media. A person remembers the sound of a word or concept, but does not think about its meaning.

The recipient may not know the individual words used by the sender. Overloading with unfamiliar words interferes with adequate interpretation of the message by the listeners.

Also, the success of verbal communication depends on the vocabulary of the participants, their experience in communication, knowledge of the language and on the characteristics of the linguistic and cultural situation in the country, etc.

37. Moral attitudes of participants in verbal communication. Evidence and persuasiveness of speech. The structure of the evidence.

Extralinguistic factors- these are factors that belong to extralinguistic social reality, and under the influence of which the selection and organization of linguistic means takes place. In other words, speech acquires its own stylistic characteristics depending on the context and situation.

For successful verbal interaction, interlocutors must adhere to the basic rules of conversation that help coordinate their actions and statements.

To do this, it is advisable to use the work of J. Austin, J. R. Searle, P. P. Price and G. Sachs. They formulated the basic principles of speech communication:

1. Sequence principle. The response to the interlocutor's remark should be appropriate and expected. A greeting is answered with a greeting, when a question is asked, one participant expects an answer from the other, etc.

2. Preferred structure principle. This principle characterizes the features of speech fragments with confirming and rejecting remarks. For example, consent to the request of the interlocutor is expressed succinctly, clearly, without delay, while refusal is characterized by a pause, justification. In addition, the pause helps the interlocutor complete his answer.

3.The principle of cooperation. The basis of verbal communication is the willingness of partners to cooperate. The communicative contribution to the dialogue should be what the jointly agreed goal or direction of the dialogue requires. GP Grice identifies the following postulates (they are divided into 4 categories), the observance of which leads to the fulfillment of this principle.

o The statement should not contain less information than required;

o The statement should not contain more information than required.

o Don't say what you think is false;

o Don't say things for which you have no good reason.

1. Avoid obscure expressions;

2. Avoid ambiguity;

3. Avoid excessive verbosity;

4. Be organized.

Thus, according to G.P. Grice, the goal of verbal communication is the effective transmission of information, the impact on interlocutors, the control of their behavior, etc.

4. Principle of politeness J.N. Leach. This principle includes several maxims (a maxim is the author's thought that establishes a rule of conduct, a basic logical or ethical principle):

1. Maxima tact- the maxim of the boundaries of the personal sphere, i.e. distance between participants. You can not touch on dangerous topics (personal life, preferences, painful topics for the interlocutor);

2. Maxim of generosity- the maxim of not burdening the interlocutor. Prevention of discomfort for interlocutors;

3. Maxim of Approval- the maxim of a positive assessment of others. The positions of the interlocutors in relation to each other, to the world, to the topic should coincide;

4. Maxim of modesty- the maxim of rejection of praises addressed to oneself, the presence of an objective assessment of oneself;

5. Maxim of consent- the maxim of non-opposition, the rejection of a conflict situation for the sake of preserving the subject of interaction;

6. Maxim of sympathy- a maxim of benevolence, leading to a promising substantive conversation. Unkindness or indifferent contact interferes with the creation of verbal contact.

Communication Code– it is based on the principles of Grice and Leach. This code regulates speech behavior based on a number of categories and criteria. Basic categories: communicative goal and communicative intention. The most important criteria : the criterion of truth (fidelity to reality) and the criterion of sincerity (fidelity to oneself).

These principles are not absolute, and critics considered them divorced from the real conditions of verbal communication. Maxims in some cases contradict and by themselves do not ensure success in speech interaction.

Evidence and persuasiveness of speech.

To influence the interlocutor, the speaker must be able to convince and convince the interlocutor. Studying effective methods and methods of persuasion are engaged in the theory of argumentation ("new rhetoric").

Argumentation- the operation of substantiating judgments, decisions and evaluations, which uses logical, verbal, emotional and other non-logical methods and techniques of persuasive influence.

Aspects of the argument:

· Logical. Argumentation - proof (establishing the truth of the thesis), i.e. the process of finding arguments for the put forward thesis expressing a certain point of view.

· Communicative. Argumentation - conviction (creating an impression and confidence in the truth of the thesis), i.e. the process of transferring, interpreting and suggesting to the recipient the information recorded in the thesis of the argumentator.

In most cases, evidence is the basis of the persuasiveness of speech, but practice shows that sometimes the eloquence and influence of the speaker can convince the listener of the correctness of the judgment based on the prejudices and ignorance of the participants in the communication. Or vice versa: the speaker can substantiate the thesis, but not convince the listener.

In order for the speech to be persuasive and persuasive, it is necessary to take into account dispute objectives And individual characteristics of the opponent.

Problems of the dispute:

· Finding the truth;

Persuasion of the opponent;

· Victory over the opponent;

· Convincing listeners.

In accordance with the objectives of the dispute, arguments and a method of proof are selected.

By taking into account the individual characteristics of the opponent, knowledge of the psychology of the interlocutor helps to find more convincing arguments for them.

Also, success in a dispute is ensured by good knowledge in the field of the subject, the erudition of a person, his reaction, resourcefulness, quick wits, self-control and understanding of the current situation.

The structure of the evidence.

Logical proof includes three interrelated elements:

· Thesis An idea or statement that needs to be proved to be true.

· Arguments- grounds, arguments, provisions, with the help of which the thesis is substantiated.

· Demonstration- method of proof: logical reasoning, inferences used in deriving a thesis from arguments.

The proof is divided into:

· direct- the thesis is substantiated by arguments without the help of additional constructions.

· indirect- the thesis is justified by refuting the contradictory position (antithesis).

38. Logic of speech. Logical arguments and psychological arguments.

In order for the speech to be competent and convincing, in addition to the structure of evidence, it is necessary to take into account the basic rules for putting forward theses and arguments. Violation of these rules leads to logical errors that complicate the dialogue and the search for a solution to the problem.

Rules for presenting abstracts and arguments:

1. The thesis must be clearly formulated, it must not change during the proof and must not contain a logical contradiction.

2. Arguments are true positions, and their truth is proved regardless of the thesis.

3. Arguments should be sufficient for this thesis.

Logic errors:

1." Substitution of the thesis”- not the thesis that was originally put forward is being proved.

2.« False foundation" or " basic misconception”- the thesis is substantiated by false judgments, which are set as true.

3.« foundation anticipation» - an unproven position is taken as an argument, the truth of which must be shown.

4." Vicious circle" or " circle in proof» - the thesis is substantiated by arguments, and the arguments are derived from the same thesis.

Errors are:

· unintentional- reasons: a person’s lack of a logical culture, dispute skills, excessive emotionality that interferes with judgment.

· Intentional- logical tricks, deliberately erroneous judgments, presented as true. They are called sophisms.

Argument types:

· logical reasoning- addressed to the mind of the listeners.

o Theoretical, empirical generalizations and conclusions;

o Previously proven laws;

o Axioms and postulates;

o Definitions of the basic concepts of a particular field of knowledge;

o Statements of fact, statistics.

Fact- a real phenomenon, an event that actually happened.

Opinion- a judgment expressing an assessment, view, attitude towards something.

· Psychological arguments- have an effect on the senses. They can be used both in a dispute and for speculative purposes.

o Reason for feeling dignity;

o Argument from threats, promises, mistrust, etc.

Tricks and speculative devices in psychological arguments:

· Argument to force - the use of forms of coercion;

· Argument to ignorance - the use of ignorance of the opponent;

Argument to fidelity - inclination to accept the thesis due to fidelity, affection, reverence, etc.

39. Non-verbal means of communication. Mimic. Types of gestures. Intonation.

The language of facial expressions and gestures began to be studied only from the 60s of the 20th century, although gestural-mimic speech arose earlier. sound speech. Facial expressions and gestures help the speaker more fully express their feelings and understand how the participants in the dialogue actually relate to each other.

facial expressions- a facial expression that reflects the feelings of the speaker, for example:

Surprise - raised eyebrows, lowered down the tips of the lips;

· Anger - eyebrows down, eyes squinted, etc.

Facial expressions depend on the individual characteristics of a person: it can be inexpressive. An increase in the expressiveness of facial expressions occurs due to training in front of a mirror.

Gesture- movement of the hand, head or other part of the body, also expressing the emotions of a person and replenishing, enlivening his speech. At the same time, inappropriate gestures produce an unfavorable impression.

Gesture types:

· Mechanical gestures- gestures that are not related to the meaning of the words of the speaker. May be the result of his excitement or self-doubt.

· Rhythmic gestures associated with the rhythm of speech. They are made to the beat of speech, denote logical stress, deceleration, often coincide with intonation.

· Emotional gestures- convey shades of feelings. Some are anchored in set phrases(beat chest, shrug).

· pointing gestures- distinguish an object from a number of homogeneous ones, show a place, emphasizes the order.

· Pictorial gestures- appear when:

o There are not enough words to fully convey the idea;

o Words alone are not enough due to increased emotionality, lack of concentration, uncertainty that the addressee understands everything and for other reasons;

o It is necessary to enhance the impression and influence the listener visually.

· Symbolic gestures- gestures that have a certain meaning or meaning, characteristic of a certain situation.

o Rigidity (categorical)- saber go-ahead with the hand;

o Intensity gesture- the hand is clenched into a fist;

o Gesture of refusal, denial- repulsive movement of the hand with the palm forward ;

o Gesture of opposition, antonymy - the hand performs the movement in the air "there" and "here";

o Gesture of separation, dissimilarity - palms open in different directions;

o Gesture of association, addition, sums - fingers are joined into a pinch or the palms of the hands are joined.

· mimetic gestures- enliven the description, image.

Gestures can have different meanings depending on the situation. Most often, gestures are used in speech for clarity (to depict an object or phenomenon) or when it is easier to show with a gesture than to explain. Statements are usually accompanied by several gestures. Gesticulation depends on the character of a person, his nationality and belonging to a particular team.

40. Intonation. intonation structures. Acoustic components of intonation. Pause, its types.

Intonation constructions (IC).

IC consists of pre-center, center and post-center parts. Center is the main stressed syllable in a sentence. Everything in front of the center is the pre-center part, and everything after is the post-center part. Example:

The boy took the book. “Took” - the center, “boy” - the pre-center part, and “book”, respectively, the post-center part.

It is not always possible to represent all the components of the IC in a speech tact. Intonationally, a phrase can consist, for example, only of a center part, or only of a pre-center and center part, etc.

One more feature: if you highlight the first word intonation, then it will be the center, and the rest of the words form the post-center part. Accordingly, if you select the last word, then it will be the center, and the rest - the pre-center part.

To determine the type of IC, it is important to distinguish how the fundamental tone changes: it rises or falls. The tone of pronunciation of vowels can be even, descending, ascending, descending-ascending, ascending-descending.

There are seven types of IC:

· IK-1. Declarative sentence. Falling tone on a center vowel; used to express the completion of a declarative sentence.

· IK-2. Question with a question word, appeal. Falling tone combined with a slight increase in word stress on the center vowel

· IK-3. A question without a question word. The difference is a rising tone followed by a fall.

· IK-4. Two conditions: 1. There must be a dialogue. 2. There should be a comparative question. Descending-rising tone (A You?)

· IK-5. Express offer. There are two centers: on the vowel of the first center, the tone rises, on the vowel of the second center it decreases. Between the centers, the tone is above average, and in the post-center part - below average.

· IK-6. Emphasized high degree of sign, action. Evaluative and exclamatory sentences, expression of bewilderment. On the center vowel, the tone rises and remains until the end of the construction.

· IK-7. An expression of expressive assessment, a combination of a rising tone with a bow vocal cords at the end of the articulation of the vowel center.

Hope this table helps you.

Acoustic components of intonation:

· Tone- the height of vowels, sonorous and voiced noisy consonants. Tone is formed as air passes through the pharynx, vocal cords, mouth and nose. By changing the tone, melodic variety is created. Monotony, too high or low tone interfere with the perception of speech.

· Intensity sound - the greater the amplitude of the vibration of the vocal cords, the more intense the sound. The intensity level is low, medium and high. The interaction of tone and intensity enhances the loudness of speech.

· Pace- the speed of pronunciation of speech elements. The normal pace is 120 words per minute. The tempo changes depending on the content of the utterance, the emotional mood of the speaker and the situation. Too slow or too fast a pace interferes with the perception of speech by other participants in communication.

· Timbre- additional articulation-acoustic coloring of the voice. In the oral cavity, as a result of greater or lesser tension of the organs of speech, overtones are formed, that is, additional tones. The timbre of the voice depends on the emotional state of the person.

Pause, its types.

Pause- a temporary stop in the sound, which breaks the flow of speech. The science that studies pauses is called pausology.

Pause types:

· Pause of hesitation - a pause of reflection, reflection.

Intonation-logical - observed in the middle of the phrase, correspond to its division into logical parts.

Psychological - corresponds to emotions, affects the feelings of the interlocutor.

Intonational-syntactic - corresponds to punctuation marks in writing and vary in duration. separates the appeal, homogeneous members etc.

· Situational - caused by a particular situation.

Physiological - depends on the state of the person. Needed to take air into the lungs.

· 41. Oratory. Public speech, its features.

Oratory and the science of it originated in Ancient Greece. The flowering of democracy in the Athenian polis (city-state) coincided with the flowering of rhetoric. Performances in people's assembly required the ability to deliver persuasive speeches.

· The concept of oratory

Term oratory(Latin oratoria) of ancient origin. Its synonyms are the Greek word rhetoric(gr. rhetorike) and Russian eloquence.

From the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language:

· Rhetoric– 1. Oratory, the theory of eloquence// An educational subject that studies the theory of eloquence // Educational book outlining the foundations of this theory.

· 2. Rev. Effectiveness, outward beauty of speech, pomposity.

· 3. In the old days - the name of the junior class of the seminary.

· Eloquence- 1. Ability, ability to speak beautifully, convincingly; oratorical talent // Skillful speech built on oratorical techniques; oratory. 2. Outdated. The science that studies oratory; rhetoric.

· Expression oratory also has several meanings.

1. Under oratory, first of all, is understood a high degree of skill in public speaking, quality characteristic oratorical speech, skillful possession of a living word.

· 2. Oratory is the art of constructing and delivering a public speech in order to have the desired impact on the audience.

A similar interpretation of oratory was adopted in ancient times. (e.g. Aristotle)

3. Oratory is also called the historically lived science of eloquence and academic discipline outlining the basics of oratory.

G.Z. Apresyan emphasizes the close connection of oratory with science.

· (He says that:

· - Oratory uses the discoveries and achievements of all sciences and at the same time widely promotes and popularizes them.

· - many ideas or hypotheses were originally presented orally, in public speeches, lectures, scientific reports, messages, conversations.

- oratory is based on the categorical system of the relevant sciences, which provides a mechanism for argumentation, analysis and judgment, evidence and generalizations.)

· Thus, in eloquence, art and science constitute an ᴄᴫᴏ fusion of relatively independent ways of influencing people.

Many modern researchers consider oratory as one of the specific types of human activity.

· Public speech, its features.

· Public speaking is a process of transmitting information, the main purpose of which is to convince listeners of the correctness of certain provisions.

· oratorical speech- influencing, persuasive speech, which is addressed to a wide audience, the delivery of professional speeches aims to change the behavior of the audience, its views, beliefs, mood.

The speaker and the audience interact with each other in the process of oral public speaking, where oratory is possible only if both elements are present: speaker and listeners.

· All speeches are divided into 3 main groups:

· - Deliberative - the desire to encourage the audience to a decision that it needs to implement in the future.

· - Judgmental - evaluative speech, analysis, of some existing fact.

- Demonstrative - a speech designed to create public opinion about someone or something.

· Features of public speech:

· 1. The presence of "feedback" (reaction to the speaker's words). It is the "feedback" that turns the speaker's monologue into a dialogue, is an important means of establishing contact with the audience.

· 2. Linguistic, or linguistic difficulty. The need to "cover larger thematic content" makes the syntax of a monologue more complex than that of a dialogue.

· 3. Public speaking - oral form of speech. And the more it has all the characteristics of a live conversation, the stronger its impact on listeners. At the same time, this is a prepared speech; as a rule, the written text serves as the basis for it.

4. Public speech takes place in a situation of live communication, while a written monologue is removed from it. Hence the specific difficulties for each of these forms.

· 5. Use of various means of communication. In PR, not only linguistic means are used, but also paralinguistic, non-verbal means of communication (intonation, voice volume, speech timbre, its tempo, features of pronunciation of sounds; gestures, facial expressions, type of posture chosen, etc.).

· There are 10 elements that characterize good speech:

- objectivity, clarity, figurativeness, purposefulness, increased tension,

· repetition, semantic richness, conciseness, humor.

· There are 5 elements of public speaking:

· - INVENTIO - finding what to say.

· - DISPOSITION - the location of the invention.

· - ELOKUTIO - decoration with words.

· - MEMORY - memorization.

· - ACTIO - pronunciation, action.

· Types of public eloquence

· Since antiquity, 5 types of public eloquence, or oratory, have been distinguished: socio-political, academic, judicial, social, and church-theological. All these kinds of public speech are prepared oral monologue.

Understanding the specifics of each kind and type of oratory makes it possible to make a specific speech adequate to the speech situation in form and style.

Oratory is characterized by a number of features

· 42. Basic speaker skills.

3 "pillars" on which a good speaker rests:

ethos - the ethical qualities of the speaker.

Logos is the science of reasoning.

pathos - how the speaker evokes in the audience

What do modern experts think about the opportunity to become a speaker?

They note the need general and special skills.

Abilities are formed from natural inclinations. These include:

peculiarities nervous system, functional activity of the brain, the structure of the body (vocal cords, motor apparatus, etc.).

General abilities- this is a favorable combination in a person of such intellectual and other features of the psyche, which are equally important for many types of activity.

The lecturer needs general abilities like:

developed voluntary attention, its fast switching and clear distribution, high concentration; good figurative and logical memory, intelligence, flexibility, depth and breadth of thinking, etc.

The speaker also needs special abilities:

Observation

Advanced thinking

Independence of mind

creative imagination

The capacity for strong emotional experiences

Speech abilities (determine the culture of the speaker's speech, his ability to convey his thoughts clearly, vividly, impressively).

Ability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for becoming a speaker.
In a person who takes the floor to influence others, they want to see Personality!

There are three main stages in oratory activity:

pre-communicative (before meeting with the audience), communicative (the process of speaking to the audience), post-communicative (analysis of the speech after the meeting).

1. The speaker's speech is preceded by a large preliminary work.

In addition to direct preparation for the performance, you need general preparedness, breadth of outlook, erudition.

When preparing for a speech, knowledge of the basics of dialectical and formal logic is necessary.

Both when preparing and when conducting a speech, the speaker needs psychological knowledge that helps to establish contact with listeners, organize their attention and manage it.

2. Communicate your thoughts to the audience, possession helps to impress culture of speech.

Public Speaking Skills- these are intellectual, motor and sensory actions learned as a result of numerous repetitions, which are already performed almost automatically. (These are the skills of analyzing the phenomena of reality, studying literature, compiling extracts, distributing attention during a speech, the skill of self-control in front of an audience, the skill of orientation in time.)

In addition, to communication skills necessary for the speaker, include professional observation, possession of facial expressions and gestures, the ability to express their emotions and manage them.

The speaker's skills allow him to solve critical creative tasks in the process of preparing and conducting a speech.

One of the most ᴄᴫᴏ skills in which the art of a speaker is manifested is contemplation with the audience when the audience, following the speaker, thinks, falls silent, reflects, comes to conclusions. In a word, he behaves like an interlocutor in the process of co-creation.

· 43. Contact with the audience. Factors affecting the establishment of contact. Audience management techniques.

· The speaker should address his appeal not only to the speaker or the presidium, but first of all to all those present, constructing it in such a way that the information received by them is understandable and forms the basis of their own reflections and conclusions.

· The attitude of the speaker to the audience must be absolutely friendly and professional. Goodwill implies the impossibility of aggressive behavior (reproaches, threats, insults) and demagogy (lie). A professional attitude, the ability to work with an audience, does not depend on its location to the speaker.

· Ethical qualities of a speaker: honesty, modesty, benevolence, prudence.

· Honest speaker: conscientious, competent, principled, self-critical. Humility: Equality with the audience, paying attention to what others have to say. Goodwill is proof of benefit, benefit to the audience.

· Audience sense, or communication, arises only when the speaker manages to create a “communication effect” in the audience by talking to the audience in the way they usually speak to close, familiar people who have something to say and who will listen to you willingly.

· Imitation of conversation

- The speaker creates the impression of live communication. To do this, he communicates with the audience, asks questions (to which he himself answers), pushing opinions, showing the failure of his opponents, etc.

· Eye contact is an important means of achieving communication skills.

with listeners. A correctly directed gaze of the speaker is an indispensable condition for achieving the feeling of the audience, therefore it is necessary to learn to control your gaze during a speech.

· good performance- must be integral in rhythmic and intonational terms. The expressiveness of speech, its influencing power increases if the speaker uses a variety of figurative - means of expression because they appeal to the world of feelings and emotions of the audience. (metaphor, epithet, hyperbole, pun, etc.)

· Audience Management Techniques

· The secret of fun. P. Sergeich points out that “the attention of the listeners receives a push when the speaker unexpectedly interrupts the thought they have begun, and a new push when, after talking about something else, he returns to what was not previously agreed.”

· Question-answer move. The rhetor aloud discusses the problem posed. He puts questions to the audience and answers them himself, puts forward possible assumptions and objections, and comes to certain conclusions.

· Humor, empathy.

· A very effective means of defusing, reviving the attention of the audience. In order to reach mutual understanding with the listener, in public speaking, the technique of empathy, sympathy for the listeners about any events, state of mind is used.

Add additional information to messages

Replace the missing language component (- do you want to go to the cinema? - no (negative gesture with the head)

Combine with language means(I'm going over there [pointing gesture], hello! 

Non-verbal means of communication, in addition to linguistics, are studied in a special section of linguistics called paralinguistics. Also called paralinguistics is a set of non-verbal means of communication that are involved in speech communication. Any significant component of the NQF that has a clear meaning is called cinema, and the collection of kinem kinesics. NSCs can be quite different in their functions, and in certain situations successfully replace the traditional natural language, mainly in the field of social and everyday communication. However, no NSC can fully replace human language. Only with the help of natural language and its numerous means can one fully, in a variety of ways express any thought, convey any information. All components of the traditional language that are implemented using words are called verbal means of communication(lat. verbum - to speak) or verbal. Accordingly, non-verbal means of communication are also called in science non-verbal. Thus, only with the help of the natural language of a person is it possible to fully communicate, develop the individual in society and society as a whole.

Topic 3. Internal (introlinguistic) and external (extralinguistic) factors of language development.

Language development factors - general information

Internal (introlinguistic) factors

External (extralinguistic) factors

A) general information (basic concepts)

B) dialects

B) jargon

1. In the existence and functioning of the language, the main role is played by certain conditions that in one way or another affect the development of the language system. Conditions, circumstances that influence the development of a language are called language factors, or language development factors. Language factors can be external and internal; in relation to them, linguistics uses the terms intralinguistic(internal) and extralinguistic(external).

2. IL factors of language development are the functioning and change of the language according to those internal laws that are inherent in it:

a) the desire to facilitate pronunciation. For example, until the middle of the 20th century, the letter "u" had 2 pronunciations: [u':] or [h':]. However, the sound [u':] is easier to pronounce, so by the end of the 20th century this pronunciation took shape as the dominant one.

b) the desire of the language to reduce pronunciation costs. Many combinations of sounds are quite difficult to pronounce from the point of view of speech efforts, therefore, in certain situations in any language, only certain combinations of sounds can occur in the process of speech activity. For example, the word “boat” is hard to pronounce [d] before [k], so the ringing sound is deafened.

c) ordering of the sound system. In any language, vowels and consonants have unique physical and acoustic characteristics. All these acoustic parameters have an exact mathematical expression, which is quite difficult to remember / memorize in the form of a certain numerical system. Therefore, in order to simplify the perception of the system of sounds and more efficient execution of phonetic units, sounds are combined into certain groups based on similarities in articulation, i.e., in the features of pronunciation using speech organs. For example, combining consonants by hardness / softness, deafness / sonority, place and method of pronunciation, etc. Other phenomena of the language also represent a certain system and are grouped into certain classes, but on the basis of already different features, which by their nature can be completely different. For example, all significant words are divided into morphemes, and morphemes, in turn, are divided into root and affixal. Sentences in most languages ​​are divided into one-part and two-part sentences based on the presence or absence of main members.

4. Uneven development of different levels of language. Different tiers of the language system in any language can develop unevenly, with varying degrees of complexity. For example, the phonetic and lexical levels change quite quickly, while the syntactic, morphological and word-formation levels change much more slowly. Changing the word-formation level is often not too complicated, and phonetic transformations, on the contrary, in most situations are complex and diverse. The result of the uneven development of language levels is that in the language there are usually old and new facts. For example, the words "mobility", "legitimate", "processor" are neologisms; “Once upon a time” - a remnant + quaperfect of one of several past tenses that existed in the Old Russian language.

Language development is accompanied by two important processes: process of differentiation and process of integration.

a) the essence of the differentiation process is that the differences between languages ​​and dialects are constantly increasing, as well as the number of languages ​​is constantly growing. For example, in the Old Russian language there were dialectal differences, but the dialects were not divided into “okaya” and “okaya”. In modern Russian, the differences between dialects have increased, although they have not become too strong by nature.

At the beginning of the first millennium AD. there was a single Latin language, which has several dialect variants that existed within a single language system. By the beginning of the second millennium AD. some of these dialects took shape in separate languages: Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish.

b) the process of integration of languages ​​and linguistic features is to reduce the number of languages ​​and their features, i.e., integration is manifested primarily in the crossing of languages, when one of several appears. For example, as a result of the interaction of the Gaulish and Latin languages, the French language arose.

In the process of development of languages, their constant interaction occurs, which consists, first of all, in lexical borrowings. So, in the Renaissance, all European languages ​​\u200b\u200bentered a large number of Italian words; after 1917, many Russian words entered the European languages, which carried with them what was associated with the revolution. In the new language, borrowings behave differently: most of them are completely assimilated, i.e., they dissolve in the language, are mastered by it, and their foreignness is not felt. For example, in Russian the words: “tomato” (French), “meat” (German), “notebook” (Greek), etc. Other words are not fully mastered by the language and retain the features of borrowing: coat, muffler, subway. Sometimes foreign words, having come into a foreign language, not only retain all their features, but also form an independent layer, a special group in the new language. So, for example, all Arabic words are in Turkish special group of book words. In the process of interaction of languages, the phenomenon substratum, superstratum and adstratum. substrate This is the sub-layer of the language. Thus, the interaction of Iberian and Latin, Gallic and Latin, Dacian and Latin resulted in Spanish, French and Romanian. The features of the indigenous languages ​​in each of those that have arisen will be the substrate. Superstrat- features of the alien language, in this case, Latin. In the development of languages ​​there is a process called language interference. This process is observed in the border areas of the development of languages ​​and consists in the interaction of similar border language systems. Elements of a language that penetrate into a neighboring language as a result of linguistic interference are called adstrata. For example, in many southern regions of Russia, instead of the normative [r], the so-called g-fricative is pronounced. in Russian it occurs only in some cases: in place of the letter combination x + g, between vowels, in most other cases - this sound is an adstratum from Ukrainian language. In the course of language interference, language unions may occur. So, for example, Bulgarians, Romanians, Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Greeks, Turks and Albanians live on the Balkan Peninsula. Each of these peoples speaks their own language, and only Serbian and Bulgarian are related. However. due to geographical, social, cultural conditions, there are certain similarities between these languages, which is due to a single territory and a common cultural process. If the languages ​​of different systems have common features, it is considered that these languages ​​form language union, and themselves, by virtue of these conditions, are allied. In the process of language development, the processes of bilingualism and multilingualism already known to us also arise, which are also largely due to intralinguistic factors.

The internal laws of language are not completely autonomous, because language is a social phenomenon, and social factors, in one way or another, influence language evolution. But they play only the role of stimuli: they speed up or, on the contrary, slow down any process in the language, but the very course of this process is regulated by proper language laws.

Extralinguistic factors of language development. Extralinguistic factors can be spontaneous and planned. Spontaneous (sudden) can change the vocabulary of the language: if a new concept suddenly appears, then it immediately forms a new word that calls it (this concept). Borrowing from other languages ​​also occurs spontaneously.

The conscious influence of society on language is called language policy, i.e., language policy is a planned and consistent change in individual phenomena of the language, which are explained by various political, cultural and social reasons. For example, when Paul I came to the throne, he began an active struggle against the ideas of the French Revolution and banned French words: sergeant, citizen, etc., as well as public communication in French.

In many situations, language policy has a positive effect on the development of the language, but in most cases it is negative character, as it contains prohibitions that are imposed on the language contrary to its natural development and disrupt its full functioning. Extralinguistic factors are also manifested in the territorial and social differentiation of the language, in the nature of the interaction of languages ​​and in the impact on their societies. The language is the same for any people and equally applies to all speakers of it, however, native speakers are not indifferent to it. In different ways they express their attitude towards it, which, first of all, is expressed in geographical and social differences.

Territorial differences are manifested in the fact that people who speak the same language, but live in different territories, make certain changes to the language. Such geographic differences form dialects. Dialect is a feature of the functioning of the language in a certain territory. Dialects are weak, moderate and strong.

Weak dialects. In many languages, dialectal differences are insignificant, and speakers of different dialects, as well as speakers of the literary language, understand each other without any difficulty. For example, in modern Russian there are 3 groups of dialects: South Russian, Middle Russian, North Russian. For example, the word "good" sounds differently in each of the dialect groups:

1) [good] 2) [good] 3) [good]

Thus, a slight difference in dialects affects certain phenomena of the phonetic level, as well as some aspects of grammar.

Moderate differences dialects create difficulties in understanding the language for the speaker of any of these dialects, that is, representatives of two similar dialects will understand each other with rather great difficulty. As a rule, the moderate dialect has quite significant differences at all levels of the language. So, the inhabitants of Eastern and Western Slovakia, different lands of Germany will hardly understand each other. In some isolated instances of the existence of moderate dialects, scholars speak of an incipient division of the language, although such situations are very rare.

Strong dialects. Some languages ​​have such different dialects that their speakers hardly understand each other or understand each other with great difficulty. In this case, dialects can simultaneously differ in phonetic features, a significant part of lexical semantics, and grammatical forms. At the same time, the basic features of grammar, most of the phonetic and lexical norms remain common. One of the most striking examples in this group are Chinese dialects. Residents of different rural areas of China can hardly understand each other or communicate with great difficulty. Therefore, for successful communication of speakers of different dialects, a voluminous and complex system of hieroglyphs is preserved. The hieroglyph denotes a concept, so it is understandable to any native speaker.

Social differentiation of languages is explained by the fact that people of different social groups and professions have different attitudes to the language and express in it the specifics of their activities and interpersonal communication in different ways. As a result, special varieties of language are created, which are called jargon. Jargon is a type of speech that is used mainly within the framework of communication (in narrow communication) of a separate socially stable group that unites people: a) by position in society; b) on the basis of certain interests; c) on a professional basis; d) by age.

Jargon differs from the literary and popular language specific vocabulary, special phraseology and special use of word-formation means.

Big A I part of the jargon vocabulary can gradually move from jargon to jargon, for example, the word "dark" was originally in thieves' slang and meant "to hide prey." Then a new meaning arose, still within the framework of the slang - "to cunning during interrogation." Further, the word turns into youth jargon (slang) with the meaning "to speak unclearly, to evade the answer, to hide something." Currently, the word is gradually moving into the national language.

B O Most vocabulary appears in jargon in 2 ways:

Borrowings from other languages ​​that take on special meanings, such as "people" (from "people"), dude - originally "guy" in Romani.

Rethinking the meaning of common vocabulary, for example, “jerk” (“go”), “wheelbarrow” - “car”, etc.

Most modern languages There are the following types of jargon:

Social or class;

Professional;

Thieves' Argo;

Youth slang.

1) social or class jargons - a kind of language that is used in various strata of secular society that have certain characteristics. As a rule, this is the upper rung of the middle class and the so-called elite. This jargon is also called secular. Secular jargon took shape in Russia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. At first it was the language of the highest noble society, and then the language of the state elite in general. After 1917, the secular jargon underwent significant changes and in many ways became poorer. Since the late 80s, it has changed significantly, and its composition has been filled with numerous foreign words, a fairly large number of vernacular, as well as certain vocabulary from professional jargons and even sometimes from slang and slang. In this process, there are, nevertheless, certain positive features, however, to a greater extent, it is negative and negatively affects the development of the language as a whole, since the speech of most politicians and public figures is in many cases public and can adversely affect the level of literary language from its ordinary speakers.

2) professional jargon is a certain type of language associated with a profession. They are used not only during work, but also in Everyday life jargon speakers. A distinctive feature of professional jargon is that it is formed not only by individual words, but also by phrases, for example, “hat” - the title of the article, “teacher” is a teacher; "Fork" - a trolley near a trolleybus; "couple" - 2 academic hours; "window" - the interval between pairs; "stopak" - a stop signal at the car, "zamkadysh" - in the jargon of police officers, "a resident of the Moscow region" or "a policeman working in the Moscow region"; “winding kilometers” - for drivers “to drive for a long time or long distances”, “Kolomenskaya broke through” - for pizza peddlers - “a lot of orders suddenly arrived in the Kolomenskaya metro area”.

3) Youth jargon (slang). Originated in the mid 1950s. A feature of slang is that it has become an independent variety of the national language. In its semantics, slang is almost always emotional and carries a lot of imagery in its structure. Slang has a great impact and also makes communication quicker and easier, so there is little harm in using slang in moderation. However, with excessive use in the process of communication, slang begins to clog the language, make communication primitive or even rude, and also negatively affects the development of thinking and the ability to fully use all the means of language in the process of communication. For example, with the dominance of certain types of slang in speech communication (in Russian), high school students blur the line between the perception of the semantic specificity of the action and, as a result, they cannot distinguish (with difficulty distinguish) the perfect and imperfect form of the verb. Also, excessive use of slang can impoverish lexicon speaker and, as a result, limit the potential of his communication.

Slang vocabulary consists of three types of words:

Foreign words with an attractive sound image (for example, good, super, forever, etc.);

Kvazislova (pseudo words) - words without lexical meaning, created for the sake of strong phono-semantic impact and having only grammatical meaning. Quasi-words can be not only artificially created words, but also words of foreign origin, the lexical meaning of which is unknown to native speakers, therefore only the sound appearance of such words is perceived. For example, plyuk, tipi-dipi, lark, maza, mazol, bezmaznyak, chepato, etc.

Words with a lexical meaning that change semantics or acquire new semantic shades, falling into slang. For example: topic, book, cool, otkhodnyak, otpadnyak, etc.

In some cases, slang contains words that are of rather ancient origin and whose original meaning has nothing to do with the youth subculture, and yet, in the course of the development of the language (that is, in the process of language evolution), such words may appear precisely in the youth subculture. slang. So, for example, in the Old Russian language there was the word "cool", which was used in the northern regions of Rus' by fishermen and meant "good catch". Approximately in the XV-XVI centuries, this word acquires a narrower scope of use and is used mainly by fishermen living on the coast of the White Sea. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, "cool" again expands the scope of use, and fishermen in Russia in general begin to use it. In the late 80s of the XX century, it fell into youth slang.

Words that came from thieves' jargon stand out in a special group of slang: blinking, radish, hut, lava, molt, etc.

4) thieves' jargon(argo or fenya) is the richest complex of jargons common in the criminal environment. The words in this jargon are so specific in their meaning that the uninitiated person, in most cases, can hardly understand them. Argo vocabulary is almost completely different from common words. For example, "gopnik" is a petty thief, f And ksa (or fix A) - woman, wind - spend time, A yva - to run away, ksiva - documents, stick-on - a person who pretends to be a criminal authority, a muzzle - a visor on the window of a prison cell, etc.

The specificity of slang is as follows: words that are used too often begin to go beyond slang in slang and some professional jargons. For example, "ment", "garbage", "feather", "ksiva", "in openwork", etc.

Regardless of whether words belong to a particular jargon, all jargon vocabulary (vocabulary) or derivatives from it are called jargon. Words from individual jargons can also be called by the name of any given jargon: professionalisms, slangisms, argotisms.

Speaking about any kind of jargons, one should always remember that each of them is not a single complex of words, but a group of jargons related to some kind, i.e., for example, slang forms different variants of jargons depending on a particular youth subculture etc.

The sign nature of language. Language and thought.

Linguistic sign and its features. Semiotics.

Language as a system.

Language and thought.

The sign system of the language. Throughout life, a person is surrounded by a huge number of signs. A sign is a certain object, which, by virtue of accepted rules, replaces another object, process or phenomenon. For example, a road sign pointing to McDonald's symbolizes a diner, indicates its location; but this sign only speaks about McDonald's, carries information about it, it cannot be eaten or drunk. Any sign can replace an object, point to it, but not copy or reproduce. The word "apple" replaces the subject "apple", but does not reproduce it. We can talk about an apple without having it, but we can't eat the word "apple". Each type of signs forms a certain sign system. Language is special sign system, therefore, due to its specificity, the linguistic sign has 3 special features:

language sign material, i.e., consists of sounds that form the matter of the language;

The language mark may be motivated and unmotivated. If there is a necessary regular connection between a sign and an object, which is recognized as such by native speakers, it is motivated. Motivation/non-motivation exists in 2 aspects - lexical and phono-semantic. If the word is derived, then it is usually motivated, i.e., its meaning is determined by the meaning of the generating word and, as a rule, is reflected in its structure. For example, ice  glacier, icy, freeze (ice - producing an unmotivated word and, therefore, an unmotivated language sign. And glacier, ice, freeze - derivative words and, thus, motivated language signs. Lemon  lemon, lemonade, lemongrass (lemon - generating word, unmotivated - unmotivated language sign; lemon, lemongrass, lemonade - derivative words, motivated - motivated language sign). lexical motivation. Phono-semantic motivation is based on the phenomenon of phonetic meaning, i.e., if the lexical meaning coincides with the phonetic one, the word is motivated from the point of view of phono-semantics. For example, the word "road" in its phonetic meaning contains the characteristics "long, dangerous, fascinating", etc., which are also included in the lexical meaning of this word, i.e., psycho-sensations that arise in the subconscious of a native speaker when perceiving the word "road", coincide with lexical semantics of this word, therefore, it is motivated in the phono-semantic aspect. The word “fruit” has a phonetic meaning “bad, cunning, unpredictable, repulsive”, etc., therefore, if the word “fruit” means a cunning, dubious person, it is phono-semantically motivated, but if a fruit means a sweet and ripe fruit , this word in terms of phono-semantics is unmotivated (i.e., a conventional sign).

motivated is b O Most of the words in Russian [do not confuse the terms "motivation" and "motivation"].

- language sign is stable. Any sign of a language, motivated or unmotivated, is a constant stable unit that changes for a very long time, so in statics such a change is imperceptible. If, theoretically, linguistic signs lose stability, people will no longer understand each other.

In any linguistic sign there are always 2 components, 2 sides, signifying(what it means) and signified(what they mean is the meaning). Dor O ha [gift O g] - meaning; ======= (meaning)

In linguistics, the signified and the signifier are also called the plane of content and the plane of expression.

The signified (plan of content) is any meaning that exists in a certain culture, and, consequently, in the language of this culture. The signifier (the plan of expression), as a rule, consists of sounds, phonemes, numbers and letters, and also, depending on the language system, some other graphic signs. If in any word the lexical and phonetic meanings do not coincide, there is a certain opposition between the signifier and the signified. Also, such opposition may arise because a word acquires additional lexical meanings due to various intro- and extralinguistic factors. Any of the variants of such opposition between the signifier and the signified is called the asymmetry of sign and meaning. If asymmetry occurs, the word becomes polysemantic. For example, "earth": 1) land 2) planet 3) substance 4) island; "cabbage": 1) vegetable 2) dollar.

Man is surrounded by numerous sign systems. All of them, including the systems of language, are studied in a science called semiotics. The term "semiotics" comes from the ancient Greek language and means "the study of signs". One of the main founders of this science is the American scientist Charles Sanders Pierce. He also coined the name (semiotics). Finally, as an independent science, semiotics took shape in the 30s of the XX century. When it comes to studying only the linguistic sign system, semiotics is often called semiology. Scientists who deal with semiotics, regardless of its specific branch, are called semiologists.

Language as a sign system is universal, i.e., any other information and any other sign system can be translated into it.

Language as a system. The language consists of a large number of diverse units that do not exist on their own, in isolation, but in close connection and unity with each other. Each component of the language system is connected with another, depends on it, defines it. This manifests itself consistency of language. The system nature of the language is also manifested in the fact that all units are in a relationship of hierarchical subordination, i.e., each element of the system is subordinate to another and, in turn, subordinates any element to itself. The hierarchy of language units is as follows.

Dictionary of sociolinguistic terms

Extralinguistic factors

(Social factors)

Parameters of social (extralinguistic) reality, causing changes in the language, both global and more specific. Global action E.f. leads to changes affecting all or a significant part of the language subsystem. Events such as the adoption of decisions on the creation of writing for a previously unwritten language, legislative and material support for the functioning of the language in certain areas, cause the emergence of new forms of existence of this language (literary language), the emergence of new functional styles, accompanied by changes in the vocabulary (replenishment of the dictionary, development semantic structure of words, changes in the valency of words, etc.), in syntax, style. An example of the impact of more private E.f. is the development of new genres, stylistic trends in literature, causing the emergence of new units in the terminology of literary criticism (conceptualists, mannerism). K E.f. include demographic parameters (number of people speaking a particular language, method of settlement, age differentiation of native speakers, etc.), social structure societies, cultural and linguistic features (the presence of written traditions, culturally conditioned language contacts), etc. The study of the relationship between the elements of social, extralinguistic reality (EF) and the elements of language is the task of sociolinguistic correlative analysis.

internal factors of language development

See also:(language development),