The evolution of the national economy of Romania at the end of 1990 directly depended on the progress of market reforms, the severity of measures for economic stabilization, on overcoming inflation and the economic interests of business entities. The peak of the economic downturn occurred in Romania in 1990-1992. GDP decreased over three years by almost 30% (in 1990 - by 5.6%, in 1991 - by 12.9, in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century - by 12.5%). In 1993-1994, the decline in production was stopped.

But the economic depression has reached a terrible brink, beyond which looms the danger of deindustrialization, loss of scientific and technological potential, and displacement of national producers from the domestic market. This is especially clearly seen in the situation in the industry. Thanks to the critical reduction in domestic demand, the amount of industrial production in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century was approximately 50% of the pre-reform level in 1989 (in industries creating consumer goods - 25-30%).

Agriculture faced no less difficult problems. The landslide land reform of 1991, accompanied by the spontaneous liquidation of cooperatives, the transfer of soil into private hands, and the change of state farms into joint-stock companies, significantly undermined the material and technical base, the possibilities of intensification and expanded reproduction in the industry.

Over the four years of reforms, the use of chemicals has almost tripled, the energy and machine intensity of production has fallen, the process of parcelization of land use has begun, which has resulted in sharp fluctuations in crop production, and heavy damage has been caused to livestock farming. Despite the fact that in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century the country managed to provide itself with food grain, non-specialized dependence on the import of food products quickly increased.

The social cost of market reforms was also higher than expected. Despite the fact that during the reform it was possible to lay the foundation for social protection and social partnership (a set of indexation of all types of income, targeted assistance to the poor, a set of collective agreements, etc.), the solvency of the population, the quality and standard of living quickly declined.

With an average increase in prices for services and consumer goods for the period from October 1990 to December 1994 approximately 80 times, average pensions and salaries increased 60 times. According to trade unions, the level of real wages has halved. Processes of rapid property stratification began in society; Unemployment is growing (at the end of 1994, 10% of the active population, in some areas - up to 15%).

Emigration has increased, which, together with a decrease in the birth rate, has caused the country's population to decline by almost 2 percent over the years of reforms. According to official estimates, in 1993-1994 the Romanian economy passed the peak of the crisis and, according to government calculations, economic growth and strengthening of stabilization can be expected in the near future.

The optimism of government statements is largely refuted by political leaders and the opposition of trade unions, constant protests by workers against growing social inequality and worsening conditions. All this has forced important adjustments to be made to the reform strategy since the end of 1992.

From the ideas of market radicalism, embedded in the first reform program of 1990 and providing for the transition to a market economy in two to three years, the country's governance was increasingly inclined to an evolutionary model of transformation. The most significant transformations were made in the privatization of property and the process of denationalization. The privatization model chosen in the country (free distribution of 30% of state property to the population and sale of the remaining 70% to Romanian and foreign individuals and legal entities) encountered the complexity of a real assessment of state property, was accompanied by large thefts, the origin of various bureaucratic structures, pervasive corruption (according to some estimates, the number The shadow economy amounted to almost two-fifths of GDP in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century).

The liberalization of costs, which began in October 1990 in conditions of commodity shortages, monopolism of producers, and a decline in production, led to cost inflation, which changed demand inflation at the initial stage of the reform. But the government only slowly, over the course of two or three years, lowered prices for basic services and consumer goods, and kept pricing for strategically important types of products under control.

The central element of deflationary policy was measures to curb financial and credit emissions. From the practice of low-cost loans at the beginning of reforms, the National Bank of Romania (NBR) moved from April 1991 to a firm limitation of credit emission, liberalization of discount rates, and from May 1992 - to the introduction of really good rates on borrowed bank funds, to a reduction in preferential lending.

Throughout the reform, a new tax system was created, closer to the European model. A course was taken towards moderate taxation, separation of forms of tax exemptions, and increased benefits for a sequence of economic activities that were serious from a national economic point of view.

The medium- and long-term programs for the development of the national economy until the year 2000 created by the government, while maintaining the rules of consistent liberalization of economic fate, at the same time rely on a more complete consideration of national interests and specifics, on the search for a combination of market mechanisms and national regulation. The reprimand is transferred to the revival of material production, to the stimulation, first of all, of domestic producers of export products.

The first plan for the period until 2000 includes the tasks of structural modernization and the creation of a complex of competitive industries. An active, strictly selective state policy should play a major role in this process, implying targeted assistance to “growth points”, industries and those industries that have the greatest chance in the world.

The presidential and parliamentary elections held in September 1992 revealed a more or less real balance of political forces, the correlation of reformist ideas and other concepts, and the degree of their social assistance. A more than convincing victory was won in the elections by I. Iliescu, who took more than 61% of the votes, and the Democratic National Salvation Front, which supported him, later renamed the Party of Social Democracy of Romania (PSDR). But the PSDR, which took 28% of the seats in the country’s legislature, failed to create a pro-presidential and pro-government bloc with a conglomerate of parties called the Democratic Convention of Romania (DCR), which, together with the Democratic Party of Romania (DPR) and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (DSVR), is in the top and the lower houses of parliament 44% of the seats.

The real political force in Romania at the end of the 1990s were the trade unions, the split in political sympathies and structure of which did not prevent them from speaking out from a united position of dissatisfaction with government policies. The massive demarches made by trade unions in 1990-1994 significantly influenced the tactics of economic reforms and became the reason for the change of government cabinet in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century.

At the end of 1990, the process of rapprochement with the European Union began. For more than 15 years, Romania has undergone strict political, economic and social reforms, and great improvements have been made, both monetary and moral, in order to get closer to European standards. The legislation was fully brought into line with the requirements of Brussels, and to this day it is being put into practice.

A large number of unresolved issues remain. For example, Romania needs to continue economic and administrative reforms, it is necessary to maintain the high growth rate of production in recent years (8.4% in 2006) and production and a high level of competitiveness.

Continuing the reform of the legal system, fighting bribes, lowering the level of bureaucracy, strengthening border controls, modernizing and developing agriculture, education, health care, opening the financial sector and the labor market, etc. are extremely important tasks for the government after Romania's accession to the EU, which must be resolved. In terms of ensuring the security of the country, NATO is the main guarantor of Romania’s security even after accession to the EU. There is enormous potential for cooperation between NATO and the EU.

The main priority of the foreign policy of both Romania and the EU is the energy security of the continent.

The success of the search for optimal ways to form a democratic society in Romania and create a market economy depends on a set of internal and external conditions, as well as on the success of the social partnership policy, the sensitivity of society to new realities, the scale of Western assistance in the form of loans and investments, which in many respects will determine the effectiveness of the reforms.

49. Bulgaria

Non-specialized information

Area - 111 thousand km2, population - 7.8 million people. (2004). Geopolitical position: located in South-Eastern Europe in the north-east of the Balkan Peninsula, bordered by Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, Turkey; has access to the Dark Sea. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The climate is moderate continental, in the south it is transitional to Mediterranean. Necessary minerals: lead-zinc, bronze, metal ores, brown and hard coal, table salt, marble, etc.

Population

Main trends:

O Decrease in natural population growth (in 2001, the birth rate was 8.6‰, mortality - 14.1‰, natural increase became negative: -5.5‰ (2002)).

O Population aging (the share of young people (under 20 years) decreased from 51.1% in 1900 to 21% in 2003, and the elderly (60 years and older) increased from 8.4% to 22.5% ).

O Excess of the female population (in 2003, men made up 48.7% of the population, women - 51.3%).

O The urban population is increasing (it accounted for 46.5% in 1965, and 70% by 2004).

O Increasing the retirement age (in 2003 it was 57 years for the year and 62 for women for men).

O The main religion is Orthodoxy (82.6% of the population).

Economy

Components of the economic crisis:

1. Increasing the state budget by 1996;

2. Slow pace of economic reform;

3. Increasing the unprofitability of state-owned enterprises;

4. Termination of privatization in the country (during the entire period of privatization, revenues to the treasury amounted to 800 million);

5. Huge national internal and external debt;

6. poor monetary discipline, corruption of the top management of banks, issuance of non-repayable loans:

• Bulgarian “pyramids”;
• issuing huge loans to mining companies, which were not distributed at the enterprise, but were transferred to Western banks;
• “grain famine” (due to weak government, a large amount of grain was smuggled into the Republic of Yugoslavia at inflated prices). As a result, 700 million. was spent on purchasing grain for their own country, which devastated the treasury.

Years of inflation surge:

® 1991 - “shock therapy”. Consumer prices increased 5.7 times;

® 1996 – beginning 1997 - crisis of the monetary and financial system (in the beginning of 1996, 1 ​​dollar = 74 leva, in the second half of 1996 - 1 dollar = 1076 leva; by the second half of 1996, industrial production fell rapidly -in, agriculture, living standards of the country.

In the 90s the average salary was $200, in 1996 it was $25–30. About 80% of the population lived below the poverty line, unemployment was about 20%);

® For 1996 – 2002 average annual consumer prices increased 39 times;

® The inflation rate in 2001 was 4.1%, in 2002 - 4.8%.

The process of overcoming the crisis

O 1997 - creation of the Currency Council, which was endowed with all the functions of the Bulgarian People's Bank and the Ministry of Finance;

O establishment of a fixed exchange rate of the lev pegged to the euro;

O increasing gold and foreign exchange reserves from $3.5 billion in 2000 to $4.75 billion by 2003;

O 1998 - agreement with the International Monetary Fund, accession to the WTO, the country became a member of the Council of Europe;

O strengthening of assistance to medium and small businesses, privatization (46% was personal property in the public sector in 2000, 70% of the country's GDP is created in the private sector), investment legislation was revised, which caused the flow of investment into the country (in 1990 - 1992 gg. foreign direct investment in the country amounted to $0.1 billion, in 2004 - $7.569 billion), Western states, especially Germany, provided enormous assistance;

O focus on reducing the state budget (1.1% of GDP in 2000, 0.7% in 2002).

Bulgaria's labor force trait

Structure of GDP production

Agriculture

Industry structure

1 – manufacturing (80%), 2 – mining (5%), 3 – supply of electricity and heat, gas, water

Leading branches of the manufacturing industry

u food

u non-ferrous metallurgy

u production of petroleum products

u production of soda ash, mineral fertilizers

u mechanical engineering (over 10% of gross output)

Transport development

Railway transport			Road transport			Flight transport			Water transport
Length of roads, km	Cargo transportation, million tons per year	Number of passengers, million per year	Length of roads, thousand km	Cargo transportation, million tons per year	Number of passengers, million per year	Number of aircraft	Gr-transportation million tons per year	Number of passengers million per year	Dl. pu-tei, km	Gr-transportation million tons per year	Number of passengers, million per year

Foreign policy

The Czech Republic is a state in Central Europe, formed on January 1, 1993 after the collapse of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR). From 1918 to 1992 inclusive - an integral part of Czechoslovakia. It consists of Czech soils: Bohemia, Moravia and part of Silesia.

The area of ​​the country is 78,864 square meters. km, population – 10.3 million people. The republic borders in the northwest and west with Germany, in the north with Poland, in the east with Slovakia and in the south with Austria. Capital – Prague

The territory of the Czech Republic covers 78.9 thousand square kilometers. The Czech landscape is very diverse. The western part (Bohemia) lies in the basins of the Elbe (Labé) and Vltava (Moldau) rivers, surrounded mostly by low mountains (part of them and the Sudeten Mountains - Giant Mountains), where the highest point of the country is located - Mount Snezka with a height of 1602 m. Moravia, eastern part , besides this, it is quite hilly and for the most part lies in the basin of the Morava River (March), and contains the source of the Oder River (Odra).

Introduction. 2

1. Housekeeping. 4

2. Social and economic development of Romania. 5

Conclusion. 10

References. 11

Introduction

Romania is located in southeastern Europe, in the lower Danube basin. This is a relatively young European country that appeared on the political map of the world in the 2nd half. XIX century

The country has a wide variety of natural landscapes, from alpine meadows and forests to arid steppes with salt marshes and sand dunes.

The Carpathian mountain system stands out for its mineral wealth, large reserves of water energy, and vast forests. The greatest value for the country's economy are deposits of minerals of sedimentary origin: natural gas, oil, bituminous shale, table salt, hard and brown coal, limestone, as well as bauxite, gypsum, and manganese ores. Most of these deposits are concentrated in the foothills and hilly areas adjacent to the Carpathian Mountains both from the inside (Transylvanian Plateau) and from the outside. The second group of minerals is associated with past volcanic activity and is represented by numerous deposits of lead-zinc, copper, gold-silver and iron ores. Outcrops of ancient crystalline rocks – granite and andesite – contain valuable non-metallic minerals (graphite, mica, talc, barite).

The climate of Romania is generally temperate continental. The Carpathian mountain ranges cause significant differences in the distribution of temperatures and precipitation between individual parts of Romania, and primarily between the plains and the Carpathian mountain system. On the plains, winter is short, with little snow and relatively warm, but northeastern and northern winds sometimes bring frosty air here and temperatures drop sharply. Spring begins early and is accompanied by heavy rains; summers are hot and dry, and the long autumn is usually warm, clear and windless. The climatic conditions of the plains are favorable for the cultivation of most cultivated plants of the temperate zone, as well as more heat-loving ones (grapes, corn, soybeans). In the mountains, winter is long and cold.

The country's population is 22.4 million people. Romanians make up 88.1% (19 million people). Of the national minorities, the most numerous are Hungarians (1.7 million people), Germans (0.4 million) and Roma (0.2 million); Ukrainians, Russians, Serbs, and Jews each number several tens of thousands of people. Turks, Tatars, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Poles and Greeks also live here. Orthodox Christians predominate among believers (90%). There are Catholics (mainly Hungarians) and Protestants (Germans).

1. Housekeeping.

Modern Romania belongs to the industrial-agrarian countries with a transition economy. Mechanical engineering and the chemical industry occupy a leading place in Romanian industry. They produce equipment for oil fields, power plants, cement plants, the chemical industry, as well as freight cars, cars, tractors, diesel and electric motors, metalworking machines and electrical products. In recent years, special attention has been paid to the development of electronics, precision mechanics and complex machine tool construction. The material base of mechanical engineering is ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.

Another important industry is the chemical industry, which has a sufficient raw material base in the form of oil reserves, natural gas, rock salt, sulfur-containing raw materials, and wood. The leading role in the development of this industry belongs to petrochemistry, where the production of polymers (plastics, synthetic rubber and fibers, detergents and various intermediate products) is concentrated in large plants. The production of mineral fertilizers has been developed, especially nitrogen fertilizers, in the production of which natural gas is widely used, and inorganic chemicals, chlorine and soda products. Romania exports nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic rubber, rubber products, soda, varnishes, paints and other products to other countries.

The woodworking industry, once primarily a lumber producer, now produces plywood, flooring, wood-based panels, furniture, prefabricated homes, sporting goods and musical instruments that are in demand in global markets. Legprom exports garments, shoes, knitwear, carpets and other consumer goods; food - canned food, grape wines, salt, vegetable oil, cheeses and meat products.

Agricultural lands occupy 3/5 of the country's territory (15 million hectares), arable lands predominate. The leading branch of crop production is grain farming. The main grains: wheat is the most important food crop (occupies mainly the more fertile chernozem soils in the lowlands) and corn is the main forage crop (widespread in agricultural areas).

Among other grains, barley is sown in significant quantities, and oats and rye are sown in small quantities in mountainous regions. A new crop is rice, cultivated in the south in the floodplains. The most notable industrial crops are sunflower, for which Romania ranks third in the world in harvests, and sugar beets.

Among the various mineral resources, there are reserves of natural gas - methane, which lies in the depths of the Transylvanian Plateau. Large deposits of rock salt are also found here. There are many deposits of non-ferrous metals in the spurs of the mountains.

2. Social and economic development of Romania.

After the events of 1989 and the overthrow of the Nicolae Ceausescu regime in Romania, reformers came to power, united in a party - the National Salvation Front, led by Ion Iliescu. When the new leadership of the country came to power, the first thing they did was cancel a number of unpopular decrees of the previous regime. The length of the working day has been shortened, restrictions on the consumption of electricity and gas by the population and enterprises have been lifted, and restrictions on the press have been lifted. A number of reforms in the agricultural sector increased the popularity of the Federal Tax Service in rural areas and allowed its representatives to win the parliamentary elections of May 1990 with a large margin. The candidate from the Federal Tax Service, as a representative of the moderate party, I. Iliescu won the presidential election with a large margin. In 1992 in the elections, in the second round, I. Iliescu was again elected president of the country

This was followed by years of economic decline and political instability in the country; The government teams of liberals and centrists changed each other almost every year and in the end were forced to admit their inability to carry out economic reforms. In 2000 In the presidential elections, I. Iliescu is elected president of the country for the third time and the Social Democratic government led by Prime Minister A. Nastase comes to power. The beginning of some economic growth in the country after 2000, in conditions of relative political and economic stability, is associated by many in Romania with the coming to power of the Social Democrats, who this year widely celebrated the second anniversary of their rule.

According to European experts, Romania is still far from complete socio-economic stability and sustainable economic growth, and today in many economic parameters it is in many ways reminiscent of Russia before 1998. It is no coincidence that consideration of the issue of its accession to the EU was postponed until 2007. Romania's problems remain more complex than those in other Eastern European countries.

Indicators of socio-economic development of Romania for 16 years (1990-2006)
	1990	1993	1996	2000	2006
Real GDP growth, %	-4,8	-1,2	1,8	5,3	4,7
Budget deficit, % of GDP	-4,4	-2,1	-3,8	-3,5	-3
Balance of payments, % of GDP	-7,1	-4,2	-3,7	-1,3	-1,2
- in million euros	-2637	-1382	-1477	-959	-945
External debt, % of exports	84,2	86,8	58,6	51,9	60,5
- in million euros	7346	8315	8960	7059	7158
Direct foreign investment, % of GDP	4,9	3	2,8	3	3,5
- million euros	1804	980	1114	1194	1392
Unemployment	3	6,8	11	10,6	8
Average annual inflation	59,1	45,8	45,7	46,2	27,4

According to official statistics, overall economic growth was 4.7% (GDP growth). The level of consumption in the domestic market increased by 3.8%. At the official level, it is often emphasized that such growth rates turned out to be almost the highest among European countries, often forgetting that in recent years of economic stagnation, an 18% gap in GDP growth has accumulated. The share of industry, construction and services in GDP creation remained virtually unchanged - about 80%.

According to an analysis carried out by experts from the European Commission, over the past three years, Romania's GDP has decreased by 18% and growth has only begun since 2000.

According to the National Institute of Statistics, GDP growth in 2002 amounted to 4.9% compared to 2001. The share of GDP per capita calculated according to European purchasing power standards (SPA) remains one of the lowest among Eastern European countries and has been since 1998. did not rise above 25% of the average European level.

Over the year, the volume of industrial production increased by 6%. The growth was achieved due to the processing industry, the volume of which increased by 7.2%, while the volume of production in mining, electric and thermal energy generation, and gas production decreased by 2.6% and 1.3%. The production of durable goods increased by 12% and consumer goods by 9.2%. Basic energy resources in terms of crude oil amounted to 31,166 thousand tons, incl. 20.528 thousand tons own production.

Production of main products in Romania
	Unit	2000	2001	2002	02/01, %
Coal	million tons	29,3	33,3	30,3	91
Oil	million tons	6	6,02	5,84	97
Natural gas	billion m	13,5	14,2	12,7	89,3
Vegetable oil	thousand tons	251,1	293,4	218,2	74,5
Meat at slaughter weight	thousand tons	257	231,4	219,9	95%
Meat products	thousand tons	123,1	135,7	123,6	91,1
Milk	million hl	0,89	0,96	1,05	109,2
Butter	thousand tons	6	6,1	5,8	95,9
Fabrics (all types)	million m	203,6	193,1	15.Jul	102,4
Jerseys	million pieces	35,7	35,9	33,3	92,8
Shoes	million pairs	33	35	37,2	106,3
Timber	million m	1,3	0,96	1,04	108,5
Metallurgical coke	million tons	1,5	1,4	1,8	128,4
Petrol	million tons	3,13	3,41	4,47	131,1
Diesel fuel	million tons	3,36	3,89	4,37	112,3
Fuel oil	million tons	1,5	1,8	2,04	113,3
Chemical fertilizers	thousand tons	1040	932,8	916,2	98,2
Cement	million tons	8,2	8,6	5,7	66
Steel, smelting	million tons	4,7	4,9	5,5	112,1
Hot-rolled metal	million tons	3,7	3,6	4,6	129,1
Steel sheet, cold-rolled strip	thousand tons	429,8	415	724,6	174,7
Aluminum incl. rental	thousand tons	203,1	205,4	212,1	103,2
Bearings	million pieces	85,5	90,4	73,7	81,5
Tractors	thousand pieces	5,4	5,3	5,5	103,9
Freight cars	pcs.	1212	1589	1429	89,9
Electricity	billion kWh	51,5	53,5	54,74	102,3

An important economic event of the year can be called the holding of an agricultural census in the country on December 5-20. 2002 According to the census results, there are 2.7 million individual households in Romania, or 54.6% of all households in rural areas. To support agriculture in 2002. 300 million dollars were allocated. According to the Trade Register, there are 941,700 private enterprises in Romania, one enterprise for every 23 inhabitants of the country.

The mass of unprofitable enterprises in the country is a consequence of the practice of “keeping afloat” of non-competitive industries. Without restructuring production, as the practice of recent years has shown, the state is unable to achieve a significant reduction in the budget deficit and the pressure of inflation on the economy can only increase.

Conclusion.

In the early 1990s. The Romanian authorities adopted a strategy of gradual reforms. On a journey 1990–1992 GDP decreased by one-quarter, and the rate of inflation in 1993 increased by more than 200%. In 1993–1996 For the economic recovery, the GPP value came (by 4%), but it turned out to be short-lived. The restructuring of the heavy industrial sector was delayed and, as a consequence, the import of raw materials and energy remained large. The balance of payments of the country's current account deteriorated and in the course of ten years the Romanian currency completely depreciated (the exchange rate rapidly “fell” from 22 lei for the dollar in 1990 to barely 22,000 lei for the dollar in 2000). The official unemployment rate increased from 3% in 1991 to over 6.8% in 1993 and remained high throughout the 1990s. In 1999, unemployment was over 11%. These years are characterized by a stop-go policy (stop - go). After the heights of the 1990s were only gradually reached, the authorities in 1997 pursued a policy of shock therapy, which led to negative economic growth of 4% during 1997–1999. In 2000, GDP grew by 2%, and the rate of inflation remained high (46%). In 1999, Romania was also invited to accession negotiations with the European Union. For 2008, the forecasts are quite positive: the actual GDP will reach 4.5%, inflation will drop to 25%, and unemployment will remain high at 10.9%.

References.

1. Russia and the countries of the world (official publication). - M.: Goskomstat, 2000. Countries and peoples of the world. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998.

2. Countries of the world today. - M.: ITAR-TASS, 2002.

3. Galperin V.M. Macroeconomics: Textbook for economics. specialist. Universities. - M.: Infra-M, 1997.

4. McConnell K.R., Brew S.L. Economics. Principles, problems and policies. Volume I: Textbook for economics. specialist. Universities. - M.: Infra-M, 2001.

5. Vlasova O. The role of foreign direct investment in the development of foreign trade in Central and Eastern Europe // Bulletin of foreign commercial information. - 2000. - No. 124.

6. Borko Yu. New stage of deepening and expanding European integration: social aspects//World Economy and International Relations. - 2000. - No. 9.

7. Bredova V. Economy of Eastern European countries in 1999 // World Economy and International Relations. - 2000. - No. 11.

8. Vodopyanova E. Countries of Central and Eastern Europe: science on the way // World Economy and International Relations. - 2000. - No. 10.

9. Gostyuk M. Prospects for the development of the Romanian economy // Bulletin of foreign commercial information. - 2002. - No. 91.

10. Girbea K. Romania: the beginning of stabilization of the economy // Economy and life. - 2004. - No. 24.

11. European integration: economic and political aspects//Economics and management in foreign countries. - 2002. - No. 8.

12. Quainer T. Economy of Romania: more problems than achievements//Business world. - 2006. - No. 17.

Labor is presented in the corresponding section of this financial plan) and streamlining the staff of management personnel in all structural divisions of the plant. 3 Technical and economic characteristics of SE plant “Electrotyazhmash” Description of the production process, technology and equipment. The enterprises include a number of specialized industries: Production of turbogenerators and...

To Romania under the conditions of immigration in compliance with established rules. In all other cases, you will have to pay for treatment. 2. Features of the development of international tourism in Romania 2.1 Current trends in the development of tourism business in Romania Romania is a new discovery of the modern tourism market. Being a country of the former socialist camp and overcoming as a result...

43.8% are employed in industry and construction, 29.8% in agriculture and forestry, 6.9% in transport and communications, and 6% in trade. Number, type of reproduction, level of urbanization The capital of Romania is Bucharest. Population – 22.8 million people. The annual natural population growth is 0.76%, which refers to the first type of reproduction. The state's demographic policy is aimed at...

11. Reveal the essence of the guild system of feudal craft. 12. What is the economic significance of great geographical discoveries? 13. Name the methods of initial capital accumulation. 2. HISTORY OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD IN THE ERA OF PRE-MONOPOLY CAPITALISM 2.1. The development of capitalism in agriculture, the “Prussian” and “American” paths Material...

Introduction. 2

1.Housekeeping. 4

2. Social and economic development of Romania. 5

Conclusion. 10

References. 11

Introduction

Romania is located in southeastern Europe, in the lower Danube basin. This is a relatively young European country that appeared on the political map of the world in the 2nd half. XIX century

The country has a wide variety of natural landscapes, from alpine meadows and forests to arid steppes with salt marshes and sand dunes.

The Carpathian mountain system stands out for its mineral wealth, large reserves of water energy, and vast forests. The greatest value for the country's economy are deposits of minerals of sedimentary origin: natural gas, oil, bituminous shale, table salt, hard and brown coal, limestone, as well as bauxite, gypsum, and manganese ores. Most of these deposits are concentrated in the foothills and hilly areas adjacent to the Carpathian Mountains both from the inside (Transylvanian Plateau) and from the outside. The second group of minerals is associated with past volcanic activity and is represented by numerous deposits of lead-zinc, copper, gold-silver and iron ores. Outcrops of ancient crystalline rocks – granite and andesite – contain valuable non-metallic minerals (graphite, mica, talc, barite).

The climate of Romania is generally temperate continental. The Carpathian mountain ranges cause significant differences in the distribution of temperatures and precipitation between individual parts of Romania, and primarily between the plains and the Carpathian mountain system. On the plains, winter is short, with little snow and relatively warm, but northeastern and northern winds sometimes bring frosty air here and temperatures drop sharply. Spring begins early and is accompanied by heavy rains; summers are hot and dry, and the long autumn is usually warm, clear and windless. The climatic conditions of the plains are favorable for the cultivation of most cultivated plants of the temperate zone, as well as more heat-loving ones (grapes, corn, soybeans). In the mountains, winter is long and cold.

The country's population is 22.4 million people. Romanians make up 88.1% (19 million people). Of the national minorities, the most numerous are Hungarians (1.7 million people), Germans (0.4 million) and Roma (0.2 million); Ukrainians, Russians, Serbs, and Jews each number several tens of thousands of people. Turks, Tatars, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Poles and Greeks also live here. Orthodox Christians predominate among believers (90%). There are Catholics (mainly Hungarians) and Protestants (Germans).

1. Housekeeping.

Modern Romania belongs to the industrial-agrarian countries with a transition economy. Mechanical engineering and the chemical industry occupy a leading place in Romanian industry. They produce equipment for oil fields, power plants, cement plants, the chemical industry, as well as freight cars, cars, tractors, diesel and electric motors, metalworking machines and electrical products. In recent years, special attention has been paid to the development of electronics, precision mechanics and complex machine tool construction. The material base of mechanical engineering is ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.

Another important industry is the chemical industry, which has a sufficient raw material base in the form of oil reserves, natural gas, rock salt, sulfur-containing raw materials, and wood. The leading role in the development of this industry belongs to petrochemistry, where the production of polymers (plastics, synthetic rubber and fibers, detergents and various intermediate products) is concentrated in large plants. The production of mineral fertilizers has been developed, especially nitrogen fertilizers, in the production of which natural gas is widely used, and inorganic chemicals, chlorine and soda products. Romania exports nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic rubber, rubber products, soda, varnishes, paints and other products to other countries.

The woodworking industry, once primarily a lumber producer, now produces plywood, flooring, wood-based panels, furniture, prefabricated homes, sporting goods and musical instruments that are in demand in global markets. Legprom exports garments, shoes, knitwear, carpets and other consumer goods; food - canned food, grape wines, salt, vegetable oil, cheeses and meat products.

Agricultural lands occupy 3/5 of the country's territory (15 million hectares), arable lands predominate. The leading branch of crop production is grain farming. The main grains: wheat is the most important food crop (occupies mainly the more fertile chernozem soils in the lowlands) and corn is the main forage crop (widespread in agricultural areas).

Among other grains, barley is sown in significant quantities, and oats and rye are sown in small quantities in mountainous regions. A new crop is rice, cultivated in the south in the floodplains. The most notable industrial crops are sunflower, for which Romania ranks third in the world in harvests, and sugar beets.

Among the various mineral resources, there are reserves of natural gas - methane, which lies in the depths of the Transylvanian Plateau. Large deposits of rock salt are also found here. There are many deposits of non-ferrous metals in the spurs of the mountains.

2. Social and economic development of Romania.

After the events of 1989 and the overthrow of the Nicolae Ceausescu regime in Romania, reformers came to power, united in a party - the National Salvation Front, led by Ion Iliescu. When the new leadership of the country came to power, the first thing they did was cancel a number of unpopular decrees of the previous regime. The length of the working day has been shortened, restrictions on the consumption of electricity and gas by the population and enterprises have been lifted, and restrictions on the press have been lifted. A number of reforms in the agricultural sector increased the popularity of the Federal Tax Service in rural areas and allowed its representatives to win the parliamentary elections of May 1990 with a large margin. The candidate from the Federal Tax Service, as a representative of the moderate party, I. Iliescu won the presidential election with a large margin. In 1992 in the elections, in the second round, I. Iliescu was again elected president of the country

This was followed by years of economic decline and political instability in the country; The government teams of liberals and centrists changed each other almost every year and in the end were forced to admit their inability to carry out economic reforms. In 2000 In the presidential elections, I. Iliescu is elected president of the country for the third time and the Social Democratic government led by Prime Minister A. Nastase comes to power. The beginning of some economic growth in the country after 2000, in conditions of relative political and economic stability, is associated by many in Romania with the coming to power of the Social Democrats, who this year widely celebrated the second anniversary of their rule.

According to European experts, Romania is still far from complete socio-economic stability and sustainable economic growth, and today in many economic parameters it is in many ways reminiscent of Russia before 1998. It is no coincidence that consideration of the issue of its accession to the EU was postponed until 2007. Romania's problems remain more complex than those in other Eastern European countries.

Indicators of socio-economic development of Romania for 16 years (1990-2006)
1990	1993	1996	2000	2006
Real GDP growth, %	-4,8	-1,2	1,8	5,3	4,7
Budget deficit, % of GDP	-4,4	-2,1	-3,8	-3,5	-3
Balance of payments, % of GDP	-7,1	-4,2	-3,7	-1,3	-1,2
- in million euros	-2637	-1382	-1477	-959	-945
External debt, % of exports	84,2	86,8	58,6	51,9	60,5
- in million euros	7346	8315	8960	7059	7158
Direct foreign investment, % of GDP	4,9	3	2,8	3	3,5
- million euros	1804	980	1114	1194	1392
Unemployment	3	6,8	11	10,6	8
Average annual inflation	59,1	45,8	45,7	46,2	27,4

According to official statistics, overall economic growth was 4.7% (GDP growth). The level of consumption in the domestic market increased by 3.8%. At the official level, it is often emphasized that such growth rates turned out to be almost the highest among European countries, often forgetting that in recent years of economic stagnation, an 18% gap in GDP growth has accumulated. The share of industry, construction and services in GDP creation remained virtually unchanged - about 80%.

According to an analysis carried out by experts from the European Commission, over the past three years, Romania's GDP has decreased by 18% and growth has only begun since 2000.

According to the National Institute of Statistics, GDP growth in 2002 amounted to 4.9% compared to 2001. The share of GDP per capita calculated according to European purchasing power standards (SPA) remains one of the lowest among Eastern European countries and has been since 1998. did not rise above 25% of the average European level.

Over the year, the volume of industrial production increased by 6%. The growth was achieved due to the processing industry, the volume of which increased by 7.2%, while the volume of production in mining, electric and thermal energy generation, and gas production decreased by 2.6% and 1.3%. The production of durable goods increased by 12% and consumer goods by 9.2%. Basic energy resources in terms of crude oil amounted to 31,166 thousand tons, incl. 20.528 thousand tons own production.

Production of main products in Romania
Unit	2000	2001	2002	02/01, %
Coal	million tons	29,3	33,3	30,3	91
Oil	million tons	6	6,02	5,84	97
Natural gas	billion m	13,5	14,2	12,7	89,3
Vegetable oil	thousand tons	251,1	293,4	218,2	74,5
Meat at slaughter weight	thousand tons	257	231,4	219,9	95%
Meat products	thousand tons	123,1	135,7	123,6	91,1
Milk	million hl	0,89	0,96	1,05	109,2
Butter	thousand tons	6	6,1	5,8	95,9
Fabrics (all types)	million m	203,6	193,1	15.Jul	102,4
Jerseys	million pieces	35,7	35,9	33,3	92,8
Shoes	million pairs	33	35	37,2	106,3
Timber	million m	1,3	0,96	1,04	108,5
Metallurgical coke	million tons	1,5	1,4	1,8	128,4
Petrol	million tons	3,13	3,41	4,47	131,1
Diesel fuel	million tons	3,36	3,89	4,37	112,3
Fuel oil	million tons	1,5	1,8	2,04	113,3
Chemical fertilizers	thousand tons	1040	932,8	916,2	98,2
Cement	million tons	8,2	8,6	5,7	66
Steel, smelting	million tons	4,7	4,9	5,5	112,1
Hot-rolled metal	million tons	3,7	3,6	4,6	129,1
Steel sheet, cold-rolled strip	thousand tons	429,8	415	724,6	174,7
Aluminum incl. rental	thousand tons	203,1	205,4	212,1	103,2
Bearings	million pieces	85,5	90,4	73,7	81,5
Tractors	thousand pieces	5,4	5,3	5,5	103,9
Freight cars	pcs.	1212	1589	1429	89,9
Electricity	billion kWh	51,5	53,5	54,74	102,3

An important economic event of the year can be called the holding of an agricultural census in the country on December 5-20. 2002 According to the census results, there are 2.7 million individual households in Romania, or 54.6% of all households in rural areas. To support agriculture in 2002. 300 million dollars were allocated. According to the Trade Register, there are 941,700 private enterprises in Romania, one enterprise for every 23 inhabitants of the country.

On December 16-18, 1989, in connection with democratic changes in Hungary, unrest began in Transylvania. Ceausescu organized a demonstration in support of the regime, but the protesters began to oppose him. Fire was opened on the demonstrators. On December 21, 1989, the unrest escalated into an uprising. On December 22, 1989, representatives of the opposition-minded party elite (Ion Iliescu, Petru Roman, etc.) began speaking on television, who created the National Salvation Front (NSF). Ceausescu, who tried to flee the country, was arrested and, after a quick trial, shot along with his wife. The Federal Tax Service came to power. The “historical parties” were restored, which already in February 1990 came into conflict with the Federal Tax Service. In the elections of May 22, 1990, the Federal Tax Service received 83% of the votes, and Iliescu became president of the country. Prime Minister Roman (since June) carried out liberal reforms.

In June 1990, the opposition tried to seize the television building. The miners sided with the government and defeated the opposition in street clashes.

After the collapse of the communist regime, prices were liberalized in April 1990. The reforms of 1990-1991 ensured the rapid overcoming of the commodity deficit while simultaneously sharply falling living standards, which caused destabilization of the socio-political situation. In February 1991, private ownership of land was introduced and free distribution of 10-hectare plots began. In 1999, social tension began to rise again. During the miners' march to Bucharest, dramatic clashes occurred with the police.

On September 25-28, 1991, miners, disappointed with the results of liberal reforms, again arrived in the capital and staged a series of pogroms. Roman's government was dismissed. In December 1991 - April 1992, the Federal Tax Service split into the Federal Tax Service, led by Roman, and the Democratic Federal Tax Service (DFNS), led by Iliescu, who proclaimed himself a social democrat.

On December 8, 1991, a new constitution was adopted and Romania was declared a presidential republic. On September 27, 1992, elections were held, which brought victory to the DFNS (since 1993 - the Party of Social Democracy) and Iliescu. The opposition Democratic Convention (DC), the core of which was the historical parties and the Federal Tax Service, was defeated. Political stabilization was achieved. But the influence of the ex-communist Socialist Working People's Party was growing. In 1996, the Palace of Culture won the presidential and parliamentary elections. Emil Constantinescu became president. In December 2000, the Social Democrats won the elections, and Iliescu led the country again.

Between 1996 and 2004, liberal and Christian Democratic governments predominantly came to power. The balance of power in both houses of parliament also changed.

Institutional changes in the country, especially in terms of reforming the judicial system inherited from the communist period and the fight against corruption, were determined by the conditions for Romania's admission to the EU in 2007. On this path, the country has achieved significant results. Amendments to the Romanian constitution and legislation adopted in 2003 provide for a more liberal approach to the use of minority languages, guarantee the independence of the judicial system, better protection of property rights, allow citizens of EU countries to buy land in Romania and participate in municipal elections. At the same time, despite the successes in institution-building, the created democratic institutions and procedures are not only “original” in nature, but also very far from European standards in terms of efficiency.

In 2007, Romania joined the EU.

On April 19, 2007, at a joint meeting of both chambers of the Romanian parliament, President Traian Basescu was removed from office, for which 332 deputies and senators spoke. This decision was made based on the report of a special parliamentary commission. Parliament decided to suspend the powers of President Basescu due to suspicions that he had exceeded his official powers. However, to make a final decision, it was considered necessary to hold a national referendum.

Observers saw the origins of the conflict in the personal confrontation between the president and the prime minister, which began in 2006. Then the head of government did not like the president’s initiative to hold early parliamentary elections. Prime Minister Popescu-Tariceanu then called for the immediate withdrawal of Romanian troops from Iraq, which Basescu opposed. The crisis widened due to the collapse of the coalition of the National Liberal Party and the pro-presidential Democratic Party. The Prime Minister excluded representatives of the Democratic Party from the government. The president declared the cabinet “illegal,” but was forced to approve it. As a result of the referendum held on May 19, 2007, President Basescu remained in power.

Romania is an industrial-agrarian country with a lower level of economy compared to other members of the European Union. Romania's economy is the 11th largest in terms of GDP among EU countries, but its GDP level is approximately 46% of the European average.

The natural conditions of Romania are more diverse than those of neighboring Hungary and the southern parts of Ukraine, which lie at the same latitude. The main mountain system of Romania is located in the central part of the country, and not on the periphery, as, for example, in neighboring Serbia. This leads to a number of characteristics characteristic of Romania in the distribution of mineral, hydropower and soil and plant resources, which have a great influence on the geography of the population and economy.

The share of industry in Romania's GDP is about 35%. In industry, the country specializes in the production of coal, oil, natural and associated gas. Electricity production is carried out mainly at thermal power plants. The main deposits of minerals and hydropower resources, forests and meadows are concentrated in the central, mountainous part of Romania, and the main tracts of the most valuable soils suitable for cultivation are located in the flat peripheral parts of the country.

The share of agriculture in Rumphnia's GDP is about 10%. In agriculture, grain crop production predominates. The main grain crops grown in the country are corn and wheat.

55% of GDP comes from the service sector. The financial and business sector accounts for 20.5%; hotels, restaurants and transport - 18%, other areas - 21.7%. The largest resort region of the country is the Black Sea coast of Romania.

The strength of the Romanian economy varies from region to region. Bucharest and the largest city in the south and west have a GDP per capita, with values ​​approximately twice the national average. These are significant economic differences between urban and rural areas.

Romania's gross domestic product in 2010 decreased by 1.2% to 122 billion euros. As reported by the National Institute of Statistics of Romania, in the fourth quarter of 2010, Romania's GDP increased by 0.1% compared to the previous quarter, but decreased compared to the fourth quarter of 2009. by 0.5%.

Industrial production in Romania in 2010, compared to 2009, increased by 5.5%. As reported by the National Institute of Statistics of Romania, the growth was due to an increase in volumes in the production and supply of heat and electricity, gas, hot water by 8.2%, as well as in the processing industry - by 6%. At the same time, the mining industry recorded a decline of 6.9%.

Romania plans to emerge from recession in 2011 and achieve economic growth of at least 1.5-2%. To achieve these goals, the Romanian government will make every effort.

Prime Minister Emil Boc noted that the latest data from the National Institute of Statistics of Romania indicate slight economic growth in the country in the fourth quarter of 2010 and inspire optimism that after the first quarter of 2011 Romania will emerge from recession.

The head of the Romanian government said that, according to the latest statistics, the economic situation in Romania has already stabilized, the unemployment rate is declining and is below the EU average.

It should be noted that the Romanian economy was seriously affected by the global economic crisis. As of January 2010, the country ranked second among EU countries in terms of the number of people living on the brink of poverty.

Statistical indicators of Romania
(as of 2012)

In May 2009, even before the financial crises in Greece and Ireland, Romania agreed with the IMF, World Bank and EU on a loan of 20 billion euros. However, in November 2010, the allocation of funds was suspended due to the political crisis in Romania. The situation changed only in January of this year, and funding was resumed. Romanian President Traian Basescu said that the country's economy has stabilized and all necessary measures have been taken to overcome the crisis. The International Monetary Fund and the European Union promised Romania to open a new credit line of 5 billion euros within two years. If the Romanian government needs it, the IMF will provide $3.6 billion, and the EU will allocate $1.4 billion.

History of the Romanian economy

In the pre-war years, Romania's economic potential lagged behind Western European countries by almost 100-150 years. Only oil production, forest development and some other industries that were of interest to foreign capital reached significant proportions. According to 1938 data, the share of foreign capital in the oil industry was almost 92%, in the production of electricity and gas - 95%, in metallurgy - 74%, in the chemical industry - 72%, in woodworking - 70%. Many industries used imported raw materials. The oil monopolies that dominated the Romanian economy collaborated with Nazi Germany.

After World War II, the Romanian economy was restructured along a socialist path. Industry was nationalized, land reform was carried out, and a state monopoly on foreign trade was introduced. Subsequently, Romania was a member of the CMEA. Since 1949, the Romanian economy developed according to five-year plans, in these plans priority was given to industrialization.

Since 1989, a market restructuring of the economy began, which resulted in a long-term decline in production and a drop in living standards. In particular, about half of Romania's population is currently on the brink of poverty. Romanian government agencies have set a course to accelerate structural reform, complete privatization and create a fully functioning competitive market economy.

The socio-economic policy of the state is based on the principles of the so-called Washington Consensus, a memorandum of accession to which Romania signed in 1993. Based on the signed agreement, a special place in socio-economic reforms is given to private property, the free market, the withdrawal of the state from the economy with a strict budget policy, and the openness of the national economy to the world market is envisaged. In 2002, more than 62% of GDP was created in the private sector, private entrepreneurship accounted for 90% of retail trade and more than 50% of foreign trade. In 2003, the privatization process was completed: only the most strategically important objects in mechanical engineering, the defense complex, nuclear power plants, and the pipeline network remained in the hands of the state.

The problem of filling the budget is largely related to increasing collections and bringing taxes out of the shadows. In 2002, Romania modernized its tax legislation in accordance with EU standards.

Industry of Romania

Extractive industry. Romania produces oil, natural gas, gold, silver, salt, bauxite, manganese ore, and coal. Natural gas is produced on the Transylvanian Plateau and at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, and the main oil production takes place near the Carpathians. Brown coal is mined near Craiova and Ploiesti in south-central Romania. Coal is mined in Comanesti in the northeast and near Cluj in the northwest.

The share of the mining industry is 7% of gross output. In the 1990s. at the insistence of the IMF, during the restructuring of the coal industry, a large number of unprofitable mines were closed; Coal production fell from 66 million to 34 million tons in 2002.

One of the largest sectors of the economy is oil production, a significant share of the market is occupied by Rompetrol; a controlling stake belongs to the Kazakh state oil company KazMunayGas, however, oil reserves are insignificant and its production is constantly decreasing. One of the largest manufacturers of oil and gas equipment is the Upetrom plant - 1 May in (Ploiesti). In 2008, the plant celebrated its 100th anniversary. The plant produces 80% of all oil and gas equipment.

Since the mid-2000s, Romania's oil consumption has been approximately twice its own production, and this ratio also applies to oil imports and exports.

Romania has natural gas reserves and production, but in recent years the country has been forced to import gas to meet its needs.

Manufacturing industry. The cities of Ploesti, Gheorghe Gheorghiu Dej, Darmanesti, Brasov and Ramnicul Sarat have the largest oil refineries. Metallurgy is concentrated in the west (in the area between Hunedoara and Timisoara) and in the southeast (Galati-Brăila). There are shipbuilding factories in Braila and Galati near the Danube Delta.

Mechanical engineering occupies a leading position in Romanian industry. This industry produces about half of the country's total industrial output. Machine-building factories, which before the Second World War were primarily engaged in the repair of foreign equipment and the production of simple machines, now satisfy the country's domestic needs for a wide variety of machines.

The country produces equipment for oil fields, power plants, cement factories, the chemical industry, as well as freight cars, cars, tractors, diesel and electric motors, metalworking machines and electrical products. Particular attention in Romania is paid to the development of electronics, precision mechanics and complex machine tools. Some products of Romanian mechanical engineering are in demand abroad. Romania ranks one of the first places in the world in the export of drilling equipment. Machinery accounts for more than 23% of all Romanian exports (by value).

The material basis for mechanical engineering is the ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy created after the Second World War, during the years of industrialization. Romania is approaching the top ten most developed countries in the world in steelmaking, approximately 17-18 million tons of steel. Thus, ferrous metallurgy is one of the most important sectors of the economy in the country’s specialization. It ensures both the further development of metal-intensive branches of mechanical engineering and the export of steel pipes and various types of rolled products.

The non-ferrous metallurgy of Romania is, first of all, the production of aluminum, relying on cheap hydroelectric power and partly on domestic raw materials. Some aluminum and products made from it are exported. Non-ferrous metallurgy products are widely used in electrical engineering and electronics. The production of lead, zinc and copper, concentrated mainly in the north of the country, is designed for domestic consumption.

The chemical industry, one of the most promising industries, has a strong raw material base in the form of oil reserves, natural gas, rock salt, sulfur-containing raw materials, and wood. The leading role in the development of this industry belongs to petrochemistry, where the production of polymers (plastics, synthetic rubber and fibers, detergents and various intermediate products) is concentrated in large plants. The chemical industry grew by 33%.

In Romania, special attention is also paid to the development of the production of mineral fertilizers. The production of nitrogen fertilizers involves the widespread use of natural gas and inorganic chemicals, primarily chlorine-soda products. Romania exports nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic rubber, rubber products, soda, varnishes, paints and other products to other countries.

Industrial areas of Romania

In modern Romania, several industrial areas have formed and are in the process of formation. Among them, the industrial region of Central Muntenia stands out for its scale of production and diversity of industries, occupying priority positions in mechanical engineering and oil refining and a leading place in the rubber, paper, and textile industries. Its role is also great in the production of electricity, chemicals and food products. The industrial center of Brasov is connected to this area, whose main centers are Bucharest and Ploiesti. They account for about 40% of the country's industrial output. The Bucharest-Ploiesti district is a major industrial zone, home to the petroleum, chemical, construction and heavy engineering industries. Metallurgy is concentrated in the west (between Hunedoara and Timisoara) and in the southeast (Galati-Brăila).

Large shipyards are located in Braila and Galati near the Danube Delta. There is a jointly operating industrial complex in Giurgiu (Romania) and Ruse (Bulgaria), which are located opposite each other on the opposite banks of the Danube. This complex was built to produce devices and equipment for the mining, metallurgical, chemical and petrochemical industries.

The gas, chemical and glass industries are concentrated in Central Transylvania. In recent years, the area has received particular attention for its role in electricity production. The Hunedoaro-Reshit industrial region is focused on coal and metallurgical specialization.

In recent years, three more promising industrial areas have been rapidly emerging in previously underdeveloped areas. Western Moldavian, covering the industrial centers of the Bacau region in the valley of the Siret River and its tributaries Trotush and Eistrina. The basis for the development of industry in this area is petrochemicals and a complex of industries related to forest processing, including the pulp and paper industry.

Olten industrial region (with main centers in Craiova and Targu Jiu). This area specializes in the extraction of oil, steam coal, and on this basis in the production of electricity and chemical products. Simultaneously with the development of energy and chemistry, the Olten region is deepening its specialization in electrical engineering and woodworking.

Lower - Danube industrial region (with main centers Galati and Braila). In the future, this area will become the main base of the country's ferrous metallurgy with a developing engineering industry (primarily shipbuilding). In it, on the basis of the plant resources of the Balta, and especially the Danube Delta, the pulp, paper and chemical industries are also being developed.

Energy in Romania

By 1996, electricity production in Romania amounted to 19,400 megawatts. The most important source was thermal power plants, followed by hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants.

Particular attention is paid to the energy industry in several regions of Romania: Central Transylvania, Central Muntenia, Olten industrial region (with main centers in Craiova and Targu Jiu). These areas are home to the gas, oil, and coal mining industries, and therefore specialize in electricity production.

Almost all the country's rivers originate in the Carpathian Mountains. In mountainous and hilly areas they have significant energy resources. However, due to uneven precipitation and the comparatively low water content of rivers, the use of hydroresources requires the construction of complex hydraulic structures. In recent years, the widespread regulation of river flows in the country, along with the possibility of obtaining cheap electricity, protects floodplain lands from the threat of flooding during floods, provides water supply to the population and industry of adjacent areas and creates favorable conditions for the development of irrigation in the lower reaches of these rivers.

One of the main rivers playing an important role in the country's economy is the Danube. This river serves as an important transport route and connects Romania with seven other countries located on its banks. The Danube, virtually the only navigable river, accounts for most of the country's hydroelectric potential. Here, in Romania, the most powerful hydroelectric power station in Europe, the Iron Gate, was built, built jointly with Yugoslavia.

Agriculture in Romania

The leading branch of agriculture is crop production and grain farming. Viticulture is developed. In livestock farming - breeding sheep and cattle. About 70% of arable land is occupied by wheat (3.04 thousand tons) and corn (3.85 thousand tons). Other important crops are potatoes (3.71 thousand tons), sugar beets and sunflowers.

The vineyards are located mainly on the Transylvanian plateau, in the foothills of the Carpathians and Dobruja. Fruit orchards are located mainly in the southern foothills of the Carpathians, on the Dobrudzha plateau and in the Danube delta. Mainly plums and apples are grown (0.47 thousand tons). Pears, cherries and apricots are also grown.

About 1/5 of the country's territory is pasture. The main livestock raising areas are the southern foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the southwestern part of the Transylvanian Plateau and the northern part of the Carpathian Mountains. Sheep farming is developed in the southeast, and pig farming in the south (from Banat to Bucharest).

Romania has a well-developed fishery (sea and river), which is based on the Danube and the Black Sea. It provides the state with significant income.

Forests are concentrated on approximately 27% (about 3.7 million hectares) of the territory of Romania. Forests are located mainly in areas above 200 m above sea level. For industrial use, the coniferous forests of the Carpathian Mountains (1800-1900 m above sea level) are of greatest economic value. Hardwoods (beech, hornbeam, oak) are also used in the woodworking industry. Romania occupies a prominent place in Europe in terms of timber reserves and harvesting.

Since the mid-1950s, a reforestation program has been implemented in Romania to replenish timber reserves that were severely depleted during the Second World War.

Transport in Romania

Romania is located at the crossroads of major European highways. The country has developed all types of land, water and air transport. Transit cargo from Hungary and the Czech Republic to the Black Sea passes through the territory of Romania via railways and highways; Transit routes to Russia and Bulgaria are of great importance. The international Danube waterway and the country's access to the Black Sea coast play an important role in external relations.

Romania has a well-developed transport network: the length of railways is over 11 thousand km, 1075 km of the transport network runs along the Danube, the importance of Romanian ports increases with the creation of the trans-European Rhine-Danube highway.

Cargo transportation is mainly carried out by trucks and by rail. In 1994, the country had 11,365 km of railways and 88,117 km of highways. The share of roads of national importance is no more than 20%. Road transport accounts for up to 60% of passenger traffic and up to 80% of freight traffic.

The bulk of agricultural and industrial goods within the country are transported by rail and road, so the basis of the Romanian transport system is road and rail transport. The bulk of goods and passengers are transported within the country by rail.

The road network has a radial configuration centered on Bucharest. The country's largest transport hub is Bucharest, through which the most important national highways and 8 railway lines pass, including those connecting Romania with the capitals of a number of European countries. For this purpose, new railways were built, connecting the capital with the western and eastern regions, and a railway exit from the Petroshansky coal basin to the south was laid. The network of highways has greatly expanded, including highways running through mountain passes. The sharply increased volume of goods transportation, as a result of the rapid development of industry and the growth of agricultural production, necessitated the replacement of steam traction with diesel locomotives and electric locomotives: second tracks were built on the most heavily loaded lines, some of the railways were electrified, and the car fleet increased many times over.

In Romania, with its convenient access to the sea, historically there have not been any significant traditions in the field of sea and river transport. In modern Romania, the role of water and especially road transport is gradually increasing. In foreign trade transportation, along with railway transport, river and sea transport play an important role. Sea and river transport are little used in domestic transportation, since the main waterways pass along the outskirts of the country. However, in external transportation they occupy a leading place.

River navigation occurs mainly along the Danube. Sea vessels with a draft of more than 7 m can reach upstream the river up to the city of Brăila. Other important ports on the Danube are the cities of Galati and Giurgiu. The sea fleet consists of 568 dry cargo ships with a displacement of 165-170 thousand tons. The largest seaport is the city of Constanta, through which up to 60% of the country's foreign trade turnover passes.

The main ports on the Danube are Turnu Severin, Giurgiu, Braila, Galati. The ports of Galati and Braila are especially important for shipping, with a cargo turnover of several million tons each. Both of these ports are accessible to small seagoing vessels. The most important port on the Black Sea is Constanta. 80% of the country's sea freight and 65% of foreign trade cargo pass through it. In 1984, a shipping canal was opened connecting Constanta with the Danube port of Cernavoda. In 1996, the Romanian cargo fleet consisted of 234 ships and had a total carrying capacity of all ships of 2,445,810 reg. etc. Among other ports, Giurgiu stands out - the outport of Bucharest, through which a lot of petroleum products are exported. The entire maritime fleet was created in the last decade (total tonnage about 1.5 million tons).

There are 17 airports in the country. The most important center of aviation communications is Bucharest (Otoieni Airport), connected by air routes with the most remote cities of the country and the capitals of other states.

Due to foreign loans, intensive modernization of the railway and highway networks, airports in Brasov, Galati, Alba Iulia is underway, expansion of the capacity of the port of Constanta-South, and the aircraft fleet is being updated.

A specific feature of Romanian transport, which distinguishes it from most other European countries, is the wider development of pipeline transport. A fairly dense network of gas pipelines has been created, connecting gas production sites with all major cities. Main oil pipelines pump oil from production areas to oil refineries in the cities of Ploiesti, Pitesti, Gheorghe Gheorghiu Dej, etc. Part of the liquid fuel is supplied from there through pipelines to the Black Sea ports for export abroad.

Monetary system of Romania

The monetary unit in Romania is the leu. In circulation there are banknotes of 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 5000, 10000, 50000, 100000 and 500000 lei, with banknotes up to 1000 lei gradually being withdrawn from circulation due to inflation, and coins of 100, 200, 500 and 1000 lei.

At the present stage, Romania's monetary policy is aimed at suppressing inflation. The shortage of government financial resources led to an increase in external debt from $170 million in 1989 to $15.5 billion in 2002 (34% of GDP). State medium- and long-term borrowings accounted for 2/3 of the external debt, private companies under state guarantees accounted for 1/3 of foreign loans. In 2002, 19% of exports were used to service external debt. The volume of the state's internal debt increased to 15% of GDP.

This causes a contraction in the money supply, consumer demand and leads to the emergence of significant accounts payable and receivable. Since 1991, Romania has introduced partial convertibility of the national currency, a floating, partially regulated exchange rate of the leu against the US dollar. Since 1998, transactions of non-residents on current payments have been liberalized, since 2002 - on the transfer of loans received by foreign borrowers from Romanian legal entities and individuals.

The issuing authority in Romania is the central bank. The main savings of the population (up to 2/3) are concentrated in the Savings Bank, the main shareholder of which remains the state. The country's stock market is in its infancy. The capitalization of the Bucharest Stock Exchange in 2002 did not exceed $3 billion. About 40 commercial banks with private and private-public capital were formed. Non-resident banks have equal rights with national institutions. Foreign portfolio investors account for 1/3 of transactions with shares of enterprises. In 2002, non-residents were granted the right to purchase government securities. In 2002, almost 40% of bank capital was owned by non-residents. Branches of foreign banks from France, the USA, Holland, Greece, Italy, etc. have been opened in the country.

The volume of non-payments in 2001-02 was 40% of GDP. The lack of credit resources largely reflected the incomplete development of the banking system. In recent years, there has been a tendency to accelerate the development of Romanian industry. There is growth in domestic consumption, financial stability, ongoing structural transformations, intensification of foreign trade relations, and an increase in the influx of foreign investment.

Foreign trade of Romania

Romania's foreign trade continues to develop rapidly, but its inherent imbalances are also increasing. In 2004, Romanian exports grew by 23.5%, reaching a volume of 18.9 billion euros, while imports grew by 35.2%, amounting to 26.3 billion euros. The foreign trade balance deficit grew rapidly, reaching the end. 2004 7.4 billion euros, compared to 5.6 billion euros at the end of 2003.

In the 1990s. The nature of the country's foreign economic relations has changed significantly under the influence of the openness of the national economy and the liberalization of the exchange mechanism with the world market. After 1990, imports exceeded exports, leading to a trade deficit. Today, we can talk about Romania’s expansion of exports of chemical industry products (soda ash and caustic soda, carbon black, pharmaceutical products, etc.), petroleum products (about 6 million tons), mainly gasoline and diesel fuel, and forestry products (about 1/4 of the lumber produced in the country is also exported (2/3 softwood and 1/3 hardwood), a lot of plywood and furniture). The level of industrial processing of exported oil and forest products is increasing. Romania began to export cement and window glass in large quantities (about 1/3 of their production). Also, the main items of Romanian exports are textiles (22% of total exports), engineering products (37.6) and metallurgical products (15.2%).

Imports are dominated by mechanical engineering products (23.4%), raw materials, including oil and gas (13.3%), textiles and products made from them (13.1%).

In 2002, exports amounted to $13.7 billion, imports - $16.4 billion. EU countries accounted for more than 67% of exports, including Italy 25%, Germany 15.8%, France 8%. Exports are dominated by 5 product groups, accounting for 70% of supplies: textiles, knitwear and clothing, leather and footwear, machinery and electrical equipment, metal products, mineral raw materials.

The main imports to Romania also come from EU countries, including from Italy (25%), from Germany (15%), from France (6%), from Hungary (4%). In the commodity structure of imports, the leading place is occupied by machinery and equipment, fabrics, clothing, mineral raw materials, chemical products, and metallurgical products.

The main changes in the structure of imports consist of an increase in the share of industrial raw materials and semi-finished products (primarily iron ore, coke, apatite concentrate, cotton) and a decrease in the share of finished industrial products. Moreover, among imported finished industrial products, the share of machinery and complete equipment for factories has increased and the share of goods of secondary importance has decreased.

Among Romania's foreign trade partners, the leader is the European Union (73% of exports and 66% of imports), and among its members are Italy (21% of exports, 17% of imports), Germany (15% of exports, 15% of imports) and France (8.5% exports. 7.2% imports). Significant partners outside the EU are Turkey (7% of exports, 4% of imports), China (3% of imports), USA (3% of imports).

Source - http://rumania.su/
http://ru.wikipedia.org/