Emperor Alexander 1 and his reforms. Reforms of Alexander I. Reforms in the field of public education and the press

Features of the reforms "Alexandre J

1. Palace coup of 1801 and overthrow - Paul L Its causes and consequences - 3: Activities of the Unofficial Committee

1801 - 1805 Decree "On free cultivators"

1. Preparation of reforms by M. M. Speransky 1809 - 78X1. and their failure
2. "Note about ancient and new Russia"

I, Karamzina
6: The first constitutional acts of Alexandri and - Preparation of the Constitution of the Russian Empire 7. P. Arakcheev\and "Arakcheevshchina". \ m [ Um Military settlements _ _

1. First quarter of the 19th century was marked by reforms, primarily in the field public administration. These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed.

The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

• Decree "On free cultivators";
• ministerial reform;
• preparation of a reform plan by M. Speransky;
• the granting of the Constitutions of Poland and Bessarabia;
• preparation of a draft Russian Constitution and a program for the abolition of serfdom;
• establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration and search for optimal management options for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the public administration system, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant question and the democratization of the country.

1. Alexander I came to power as a result palace coup 1801, which was carried out by opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with the sharp departure of Paul 1 from Catherine’s orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by the conspirators and Alexander I, Paul's eldest son and Catherine's grandson, was elevated to the throne. The short and harsh 5-year reign of Paul I ended. At the same time, a return to Catherine’s order - idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backwards. The way out was to carry out limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.
2. To prepare reforms in 1801, it was created Secret committee, which included the closest associates - “young friends” of Alexander I:

• N. Novosiltsev;
• A. Czartoryski;
• P. Stroganov;
• V. Kochubey.

This committee was the think tank for reforms for 4 years (1801 - 1805). Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, but most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecisiveness of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.
The main issue that the Secret Committee dealt with in the first years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the supporters of which were the majority of the committee members. However, after long hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, the emperor in 1803 issued the Decree “On Free Plowmen” of 1803, which for the first time in the history of feudal Russia allowed landowners to release peasants for a ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. The chance to abolish serfdom in a timely manner was missed.
Other reforms of the Secret Committee were:

• ministerial reform - instead of Peter's colleges, ministries of the European model were created in Russia;
• Senate reform - the Senate became a judicial body;
• education reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parochial) to gymnasiums, and universities were given broad rights.

In 1805, the Secret Committee was dissolved due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

1. In 1809, Alexander I ordered the preparation new plan reforms to Mikhail Speransky, Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented lawyer and government expert. The goal of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a “constitutional” appearance without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

• while maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce the European principle of separation of powers in Russia;
• for this purpose, create an elected parliament - the State Duma (legislative power), the Cabinet of Ministers (executive power), the Senate (judicial power);
• The State Duma should be elected through popular elections and endowed with legislative functions; give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;
• divide the entire population of Russia into three classes - nobles, “middle state” (merchants, townspeople, townspeople, state peasants), "working people" (serfs, servants);
• grant voting rights only to nobles and representatives of the “middle class”;
• introduce a system of local self-government - in each province, elect a provincial duma, which would form the provincial government - the executive body;
• The Senate - the highest judicial body - is to be formed from representatives elected by provincial dumas, and thus concentrate “folk wisdom” in the Senate;
• A cabinet of 8 - 10 ministers should be formed by the emperor, who would personally appoint ministers and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;
• a link between the three branches of government - State Duma, the Judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers should create a special body - the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of government and would be a “bridge” between them and the emperor;
• At the top of the entire system of power there was supposed to be an emperor - a head of state endowed with broad powers and an arbiter between all branches of government.

Of all the main proposals of Speransky, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

• in 1810 the State Council was created, which became a legislative body appointed by the emperor;
• At the same time, ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The remaining proposals were rejected and remained the plan.

1. The turning point During the reforms, the “Note on Ancient and New Russia in its Political and Civil Relations,” sent to the Emperor in 1811 by the famous historian and public figure N. Karamzin, became known. N. Karamzin's "Note" became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky's reforms. In this “Note on Ancient and New Russia,” N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, opposed reforms that would lead to turmoil, and for the preservation and strengthening of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same year, 1811, Speransky’s reforms were stopped.
In March 1812, M. Speransky was appointed Governor-General of Siberia - in fact, he was sent into honorable exile.

1. After Patriotic War 1812 reform activities resumed again. Reforms took place in two directions:

• improvement of the national-state structure;
• preparation of the draft Constitution of Russia.

Within the first direction:

• Alexander I granted the Constitution to the Kingdom of Poland in 1815;
• autonomy was granted to Bessarabia, which in 1818 was also granted a constitutional document - the “Charter of Education of the Bessarabia Region”.

As part of the second direction, in 1818 the preparation of an all-Russian draft Constitution began. The work on preparing the project was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev. The prepared draft - the State Charter of the Russian Empire - contained the following main provisions:

• a constitutional monarchy was established in Russia;
• a parliament was established - the State Sejm, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the Ambassadorial Chamber;
• The embassy chamber was elected by noble assemblies, after which the deputies were approved by the emperor;
• The Senate was entirely appointed by the emperor;
• the initiative to propose laws was assigned only to the emperor, but the laws must necessarily be approved by the Sejm; ,
• the emperor alone exercised executive power through ministers appointed by him;
• Russia was divided into 10 - 12 governorates, united on the basis of a federation;
• governorships had their own self-government, which largely copied the all-Russian one;
• fundamental civil liberties were enshrined - freedom of speech, press, right private property;
• serfdom was not mentioned at all (it was planned to begin its gradual abolition simultaneously with the adoption of the Constitution).

The main problem that hampered the adoption of the Constitution was the question of the abolition of serfdom and the procedure for its abolition. To this end, 11 projects were submitted to the emperor, each of which contained very different proposals on this issue.
The first step to implement these proposals was the partial abolition of serfdom in Russia, initially carried out in the Baltic states.

• in 1816, the emperor issued the “Regulations on Estonian Peasants”, according to which peasants on the territory of Estonia (Estonia) were freed from serfdom;
• in 1817 and 1819 similar regulations were issued concerning the peasants of Courland and Livonia;
• Baltic peasants became personally free, but were freed without land, which remained the property of the landowners;
• liberated peasants had the right to rent land or buy it.

However, the decision to abolish serfdom throughout Russia was never made. Its consideration dragged on for several years until Emperor Alexander I died in 1825, after which it was removed from the agenda altogether. The main reasons for the delay in resolving the peasant issue (and with it the adoption of the Constitution) were the personal indecisiveness of Alexander I and the opposition of the top nobility.

1. In the 1820s. In the circle of Alexander 1, the conservative-punitive direction prevailed. His personification was P. Arakcheev, who began his career as a military adviser to Alexander and in the 1820s. who actually became the second person in the state. This period of decline of reforms was called “Arakcheevism”. It was during this period that plans to adopt a Constitution and abolish serfdom were finally thwarted. The most odious decision of P. Arakcheev was the creation of new social units in Russia - military settlements.

Military settlements were an attempt to combine the peasant and the soldier in one way and in one way of life:

• since maintaining the army was expensive for the state, Arakcheev proposed transferring the army to “self-financing”;
• for these purposes, soldiers (yesterday's peasants) were forced, simultaneously with military service, engage in peasant labor;
• the usual military units and barracks and other attributes of the life of soldiers in peacetime were replaced by special communities - military settlements;
• military settlements were scattered throughout Russia;
• in these settlements, peasants part of the time were engaged in drill and military training, and part of the time - agriculture and ordinary peasant labor;
• In military settlements, strict barracks discipline and semi-prison rules reigned.

Military settlements under Arakcheev became widespread. In total, about 375 thousand people were transferred to the regime of military settlements. Military settlements did not enjoy authority among the people and aroused hatred among most settlers. Peasants often preferred serfdom to life in such military-peasant camps. Despite partial changes in the system of government, the reforms of Alexander I did not solve the main issues:

• abolition of serfdom;
• adoption of the Constitution;
• democratization of the country.

Alexander I took the throne at the age of 23. He was prepared for his crowned role and had established ideas about governing the country. The views of Alexander I were distinguished by a humanistic orientation, which was facilitated by his teachers: the Russian priest-archpriest A. A. Samborsky and the Swiss educator Laharpe F. Both of them sought to awaken in the future emperor a sense of truth, justice, and compassion for one’s neighbor. The first days of the reign of Alexander I were marked by great favors: thousands of people who were persecuted under Paul I were returned from exile, and many others were restored to civil rights. A striking phenomenon of the beginning of the reign of Alexander I was the creation on May 22, 1801. "Unspoken Committee". The members of the “Secret Committee” were educated people, capable of appreciating fresh thought and expressing useful ideas, but systematic work was not for them. Therefore, the then little-known Speransky M.M. was brought in as the executor of the general plan of reforms, who gradually became a key figure in the preparation of projects. The meaning of Speransky M.M. increased especially since 1807, when the “Secret Committee” collapsed. Subsequently, of the committee members, only V.P. Kochubey. played a prominent government role both under Alexander I and Nicholas I. Adhering to liberal views, Kochubey V.P. showed great statesmanship. Steadily pursuing a liberal course, he was skillfully able to neutralize intrigues, thereby preserving himself and those close to him for further actions. With close cooperation between Speransky M.M. and Kochubey P.V. Almost all the reforms of the first years of the reign of Alexander I were carried out.

The top political creativity Speransky M.M. became constitutional project 1809 under the title "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." The project envisaged the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Russia with a division of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. For the first time in Russian political practice, a parliamentary body was called the State Duma. The State Council was declared the highest legislative chamber. A number of government bodies retained their previous names, but their functions changed significantly. The electoral system was based not on the class principle, but on the property qualification, i.e. ownership of property. Formally, the project did not affect serfdom, but created by Speransky M.M. the legal system left no room for him. Project by Speransky M.M. contained great political power, and therefore it was kept secret for almost a century and became known in full only in the early 20th century. Speransky M.M. and even more so, it was clear to Alexander I that it was impossible to introduce a new state system at once: the influence of conservative circles of society was too strong. Therefore, the plan began to be implemented piecemeal. The beginning of the changes was the establishment of ministries instead of the former Peter's colleges, which had become fairly outdated over the past century. The ministries were established on September 8, 1802, but initially they changed little, because The bureaucratic apparatus from the collegiums has been preserved. The next step in the implementation of the transformation plan was the creation of the State Council, the grand opening of which took place on January 1, 1810. It was created as a legislative body, without whose opinion no law could come into force. With some changes, the State Council existed until 1917. Only after the appearance general plan Speransky M.M. in 1811 the ministries acquired the final structure of executive power.

The implementation of the principle of separation of powers could not but affect the oldest government agency- Senate. A number of decrees exempted the Senate from performing legislative and administrative functions. It turned into a state body responsible for the publication of laws, supervision of legality and judicial power. As a result of these transformations, Russia took an important step towards the rule of law over government.

Understanding the detrimental nature of serfdom for Russia, Alexander I and his advisers developed a plan for its gradual elimination. The first link of this plan was the decree of February 20, 1803. about free cultivators. According to the decree, landowners received the right to free their serfs and provide them with land. According to this decree, during the reign of Alexander I, relatively few peasants were released, just over 40 thousand. Its main significance lay in another: it created a legal precedent. From now on, by decree, peasants received the right to become not only free, but also land owners. It is no coincidence that February 19, 1861 in the documents on the abolition of serfdom, reference was made to the decree on free cultivators. In the first quarter of the 19th century. Restrictions on serfdom were implemented: the distribution of estates to dignitaries was stopped, it was forbidden to make announcements about the sale of serfs without land, and coercive measures were introduced against landowners who treated the peasants cruelly. In the Baltic states, personal liberation of serfs was carried out, but without land.

There have also been changes in the education system. Parish schools began to open in villages, district schools - in counties, and gymnasiums in provinces. Universities were founded in St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Kazan and Warsaw. October 19, 1811 a famous lyceum was founded in Tsarskoe Selo, of which Pushkin A.S. was a student.

Less noticeable is the government's efforts to improve local governance. Russia suffered greatly from the arbitrariness of provincial and district administrations. With the participation of the same Speransky M.M. audits of a number of provinces were carried out and a new system local government of Siberia. The government began to persistently introduce imperial legislation on the national outskirts, which often led to outbreaks of protest and even armed struggle, as, for example, in the Caucasus.

Poland and Finland were in a special position, having received constitutions under Alexander I, albeit with very limited rights. These constitutions created a paradoxical situation: the Russian autocrat became a constitutional monarch in Poland and Finland. Politically, the proclamation of constitutions had great value. They gave rise to constitutional illusions in society, which Alexander I skillfully used.

Following the Polish constitution of June 8, 1815. Alexander I made a public statement about the introduction of a Russian constitution “like the Polish one.” In 1818 N.N. Novosiltsev, close to Alexander I, who served in Poland at that time, was ordered to draw up a draft of the Russian constitution. Based on the political writings of Speransky M.M., the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland and other European constitutional acts, in the office of Novosiltsev N.N. drew up a constitutional draft entitled “State Charter for the Russian People.” It developed the principles of political freedom, popular representation and law and order. A feature of the project by Novosiltsev N.N. there was a desire to introduce political freedoms locally without affecting the autocracy. In this he was much inferior to M.M. Speransky's "Introduction to the Code...", trying to combine the incompatible. Despite the extremely moderate liberalism of the “State Charter...”, it was hidden from the Russian public. Only chance allowed her to be brought to light. November 17, 1830 An uprising broke out in Poland, and imperial documents, incl. and "State charter...". As a result, it was published by the rebels as an act of political sympathy for the Russian people.

The most famous activity of Alexander I as the arbiter of the destinies of Europe. After the victory of the Russian people in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army, the importance of Russia and Alexander I personally in European politics increased greatly. During the Congress of Vienna, on the initiative of the Russian Emperor, it was created Holy Alliance monarchs of Europe. Even in the eyes of contemporaries, this action was perceived as reactionary, aimed at suppressing popular movements.

The last years of the reign of Alexander I were very different from the first decade of his reign. The previous reform plan was forgotten by the 1820s. Among the innovations could be: The actions of A. A. Arakcheev to create a special military class and military settlements are attributed. However, these transformations were feudal in nature and did not fit into the system of an enlightened monarchy.

After the coup of March 11, 1801 Alexander1 cancels the regulations that caused particularly acute discontent among the nobles: all articles of the “Charter of Grant” to the nobility were completely restored, which returned them the status and position of a privileged class; the “Certificate of Complaint” to the cities was confirmed; An amnesty was held for 12 thousand. prisoners; Preparations for a military campaign in India were stopped and the ban on trade with England was lifted. But peaceful relations with France were not broken. It was Alexander who took the initiative to regulate the state of relations between the landowner and the serf, as well as to implement policies designed to really alleviate the situation of the peasants. The practice of distributing state peasants to landowners was stopped. The printing of advertisements for the sale of peasants is prohibited. Alexander sought more - a ban on selling serfs without land, but was unable to overcome the resistance of the higher-ups. In 1803 A decree on “free cultivators” was adopted, which allowed serfs to buy their freedom with land, but with the consent of the landowner. Landowners were forbidden to send peasants to hard labor and to Siberia (1809). Alexander1 in 1809 instructed one of the most talented officials of the era, Speransky, to develop a project for his fundamental reforms. The reformer's plans were based on the liberal principle of separation of powers - legislative, executive and judicial at all levels of government of the country - from the volost to the center. However, in the end, the tsar implemented only a little of everything planned - in 1810. created the State Council, which had only legislative functions. Speransky at the beginning of 1812. was arrested and exiled. Reforms in the cultural sphere were the most liberal in nature. Soon the reforms were curtailed. The reasons for the curtailment of the reforms were the following factors: a powerful opposition formed in noble circles, dissatisfied not only with Speransky’s projects, but also with Alexander’s liberal policies in general; in the conditions of the persistence of serfdom and acute social tension, any restriction of autocratic power could cause an uprising by the lower classes of society; the country was on the verge of a war with Napoleon, which required the consolidation of the ranks of the nobility, its unification around the throne; Alexander, on the one hand, became a “hostage” of the autocratic system and could not change its foundations at will; on the other hand, he increasingly came to taste autocratic rule. Thus, neither the socio-political nor the spiritual prerequisites for the transition to a constitutional system have yet developed in the country. After Napoleonic wars Reactionary tendencies intensified in Alexander's policy. At the same time, attempts were made to return to the course of liberal reforms. Cane discipline was restored in the army. In 1821 Kazan and St. Petersburg universities were “destroyed”. In 1822 followed by a decree banning secret organizations. In 1822 Alexander1 renewed the right of landowners to exile serfs to Siberia and send them to hard labor. Attempts were made at military reform, and military settlements were created. The main objectives of the military reform were: reducing the huge costs of the army; creation of a new army recruitment system. Alexander1 planned to gradually transfer the entire army to military settlements. This made it possible for the government to create a special caste of professional military men from military villagers, ready to carry out any orders. At the same time, in peacetime, soldiers could not be separated from their families. The practical creation was entrusted to the royal favorite Arakcheev. Since 1816 a third of the army was transferred to military settlements. First of all, this affected cavalry units stationed in the south of the country, and infantry in the north-west. State peasants of several volosts were also included in the military villagers. In the settlements, all adult men performed military service and at the same time performed agricultural work. Hospitals and schools operated in the settlements. Military discipline reigned. Services, work and everyday life - everything took place in barracks mode - to the drum and the signal of the regimental trumpet. As a result of the existence of military settlements, part of the army became relatively economically independent, which significantly reduced the cost of its maintenance. But the hard life of the villagers led to repeated uprisings. In addition, state villages, which previously regularly paid taxes and lived in prosperity, after their transformation into military settlements turned into unprofitable ones and existed at the expense of the treasury. The first period of Alexander's reign1 (before the Patriotic War of 1812) was a qualitatively new stage in the development of the policy of "enlightened absolutism". The last decade of Alexander's reign was a period of growing conservative tendencies in the domestic political course, which, despite attempts to return to liberal policies, was finally established by the early 1820s.

1) First quarter of the 19th century was marked by reforms, primarily in the field of public administration. These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed.

The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

• Decree “On Free Plowmen”;
• ministerial reform;
• preparation of a reform plan by M. Speransky;
• the granting of the Constitutions of Poland and Bessarabia;
• preparation of a draft Russian Constitution and a program for the abolition of serfdom;
• establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration and search for optimal management options for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the public administration system, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant question and the democratization of the country.

2 ) Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in 1801, which was carried out by opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with Paul I’s sharp departure from Catherine’s orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by the conspirators and Alexander I, Paul's eldest son and Catherine's grandson, was elevated to the throne. The short and harsh 5-year reign of Paul I ended. At the same time, a return to Catherine’s order - idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backwards. The way out was to carry out limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.

3 ) To prepare reforms, a Secret Committee was created in 1801, which included the closest associates - “young friends” of Alexander I:

• N. Novosiltsev;
• A. Czartoryski;
• P. Stroganov;
• V. Kochubey.

This committee was the think tank for reforms for 4 years (1801 - 1805). Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, but most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecisiveness of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.

The main issue that the Secret Committee dealt with in the first years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the supporters of which were the majority of the committee members. However, after long hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, the emperor in 1803 issued the Decree “On Free Plowmen” of 1803, which for the first time in the history of feudal Russia allowed landowners to release peasants for a ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. The chance to abolish serfdom in a timely manner was missed. Other reforms of the Secret Committee were:

• ministerial reform - instead of Peter’s colleges, European-style ministries were created in Russia;
• Senate reform - the Senate became a judicial body;
• education reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parochial) to gymnasiums, broad rights were given to universities.

In 1805, the Secret Committee was dissolved due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

4 ) In 1809, Alexander I instructed Mikhail Speransky, Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented state lawyer, to prepare a new reform plan. The goal of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a “constitutional” appearance without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

while maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce the European principle of separation of powers in Russia;

for this purpose, create an elected parliament - the State Duma (legislative power), the Cabinet of Ministers (executive power), the Senate (judicial power);

The State Duma should be elected through popular elections and endowed with legislative functions; give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;

divide the entire population of Russia into three classes - nobles, “middle class” (merchants, townspeople, townspeople, state peasants), “working people” (serfs, servants);

grant the right to vote only to nobles and representatives of the “middle class”;

introduce a system of local self-government - in each province, elect a provincial duma, which would form the provincial government - the executive body;

The Senate - the highest judicial body - is formed from representatives elected by provincial dumas, and thus concentrates “folk wisdom” in the Senate;

A cabinet of 8 - 10 ministers should be formed by the emperor, who would personally appoint ministers and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;

make a special body the connecting link between the three branches of government - the State Duma, the Judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers - the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of government and would be a “bridge” between them and the emperor;

At the top of the entire system of power there was supposed to be an emperor - a head of state endowed with broad powers and an arbiter between all branches of government.

Of all the main proposals of Speransky, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

in 1810 the State Council was created, which became a legislative body appointed by the emperor;

At the same time, ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The remaining proposals were rejected and remained the plan.

5 ) The turning point in the course of the reforms was the “Note on Ancient and New Russia in its Political and Civil Relations,” sent to the Emperor in 1811 by the famous historian and public figure N. Karamzin. N. Karamzin’s “Note” became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky’s reforms. In this “Note on Ancient and New Russia,” N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, opposed reforms that would lead to turmoil, and for the preservation and strengthening of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same year, 1811, Speransky’s reforms were stopped. In March 1812, M. Speransky was appointed Governor-General of Siberia - in fact, he was sent into honorable exile.

6 ) After the Patriotic War of 1812, reform activities resumed again. Reforms took place in two directions:

• improvement of the national-state structure;
• preparation of the draft Constitution of Russia.

Within the first direction:

• Alexander I granted the Constitution to the Kingdom of Poland in 1815;
• autonomy was granted to Bessarabia, which in 1818 was also granted a constitutional document - the “Charter of Education of the Bessarabia Region”.

As part of the second direction, in 1818 the preparation of an all-Russian draft Constitution began. The work on preparing the project was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev. The prepared draft - the State Charter of the Russian Empire - contained the following main provisions:

• a constitutional monarchy was established in Russia;
• a parliament was established - the State Sejm, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the Ambassadorial Chamber;
• The embassy chamber was elected by noble assemblies, after which the deputies were approved by the emperor;
• The Senate was entirely appointed by the emperor;
• the initiative to propose laws was assigned only to the emperor, but the laws had to be approved by the Sejm;
• the emperor alone exercised executive power through ministers appointed by him;
• Russia was divided into 10 - 12 governorships, united on the basis of a federation;
• governorships had their own self-government, which largely copied the all-Russian one;
• fundamental civil liberties were secured - freedom of speech, press, and the right to private property;
• serfdom was not mentioned at all (it was planned to begin its gradual abolition simultaneously with the adoption of the Constitution).

The main problem that hampered the adoption of the Constitution was the question of the abolition of serfdom and the procedure for its abolition. To this end, 11 projects were submitted to the emperor, each of which contained very different proposals on this issue. The first step to implement these proposals was the partial abolition of serfdom in Russia, initially carried out in the Baltic states.

• in 1816, the emperor issued the “Regulations on Estonian Peasants”, according to which peasants on the territory of Estonia (Estonia) were freed from serfdom;
• in 1817 and 1819 similar regulations were issued concerning the peasants of Courland and Livonia;
• Baltic peasants became personally free, but were freed without land, which remained the property of the landowners;
• liberated peasants had the right to rent land or buy it.

However, the decision to abolish serfdom throughout Russia was never made. Its consideration dragged on for several years until Emperor Alexander I died in 1825, after which it was removed from the agenda altogether. The main reasons for the delay in resolving the peasant issue (and with it the adoption of the Constitution) were the personal indecisiveness of Alexander I and the opposition of the top nobility.

7) In the 1820s. In the circle of Alexander I, the conservative-punitive direction prevailed. His personification was P. Arakcheev, who began his career as a military adviser to Alexander and in the 1820s. who actually became the second person in the state. This period of decline of reforms was called “Arakcheevism”. It was during this period that plans to adopt a Constitution and abolish serfdom were finally thwarted. The most odious decision of P. Arakcheev was the creation of new social units in Russia - military settlements. Military settlements became an attempt to unite the peasant and the soldier in one person and in one way of life:

• since maintaining the army was expensive for the state, Arakcheev proposed transferring the army to “self-financing”;
• for these purposes, soldiers (yesterday's peasants) were forced, along with military service, to engage in peasant labor;
• the usual military units and barracks and other attributes of the life of soldiers in peacetime were replaced by special communities - military settlements;
• military settlements were scattered throughout Russia;
• in these settlements, peasants spent part of the time engaged in drill and military training, and part of the time in agriculture and ordinary peasant labor;
• In military settlements, strict barracks discipline and semi-prison rules reigned.

Military settlements under Arakcheev became widespread. In total, about 375 thousand people were transferred to the regime of military settlements. Military settlements did not enjoy authority among the people and aroused hatred among most settlers. Peasants often preferred serfdom to life in such military-peasant camps. Despite partial changes in the system of government, the reforms of Alexander I did not solve the main issues:

• abolition of serfdom;
• adoption of the Constitution;
• democratization of the country.

Born on December 23, 1777. From early childhood, he began to live with his grandmother, who wanted to raise him to be a good sovereign. After Catherine's death, Paul ascended the throne. The future emperor had many positive traits character. Alexander was dissatisfied with his father's rule and conspired against Paul. On March 11, 1801, the Tsar was killed, and Alexander began to rule. Upon accession to the throne, Alexander 1st promised to follow political course Catherine the 2nd.

1st stage of transformation

The beginning of the reign of Alexander 1st was marked by reforms; he wanted to change the political system of Russia, create a constitution that guaranteed rights and freedom to everyone. But Alexander had many opponents. On April 5, 1801, the Permanent Council was created, whose members could challenge the tsar's decrees. Alexander wanted to free the peasants, but many opposed this. Nevertheless, on February 20, 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued. This is how the category of free peasants appeared in Russia for the first time.

Alexander carried out an education reform, the essence of which was the creation of a state system, the head of which was the Ministry of Public Education. In addition, administrative reform was carried out (reform higher authorities management) - 8 ministries were established: foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military ground forces, naval forces, justice, commerce and public education. The new controls had sole authority. Each separate department was controlled by a minister, each minister was subordinate to the Senate.

2nd stage of reforms

Alexander introduced M.M. into his circle. Speransky, who was entrusted with the development of a new government reform. According to Speransky's project, it is necessary to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia, in which the power of the sovereign would be limited to a bicameral parliamentary body. The implementation of this plan began in 1809. By the summer of 1811, the transformation of the ministries was completed. But due to foreign policy In Russia (tensed relations with France), Speransky’s reforms were perceived as anti-state, and in March 1812 he was dismissed.

The threat from France was looming. June 12, 1812 began. After the expulsion of Napoleon's troops, the authority of Alexander I strengthened.

Post-war reforms

In 1817-1818 People close to the emperor were engaged in the gradual elimination of serfdom. By the end of 1820, a draft of the State Charter was prepared Russian Empire, approved by Alexander, but it was not possible to introduce it.

Feature domestic policy Alexander the 1st introduced a police regime and created military settlements, which later became known as “Arakcheevshchina.” Such measures caused discontent among the broad masses of the population. In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, headed by A.N. Golitsyn. In 1822, Emperor Alexander 1st banned in Russia secret societies, including Freemasonry.