Human bone under a microscope. "study of the structure of cells and tissues of the body under a microscope." Lung cancer cells

Taking a look at the pictures below will take you on a journey through your body, from your head to your intestines and pelvic organs. You will see what normal cells look like and what happens to them when cancer affects them, and you will also get a visual idea of how, say, the first meeting of an egg and a sperm cell occurs.

Almost all of the images shown here were taken with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The electron beam emitted by such a device interacts with the atoms of the desired object, resulting in 3D images of the highest resolution. A magnification of 250,000 times allows you to see details in the size of 1-5 nanometers (that is, billionths of a meter).

The first SEM image was obtained in 1935 by Max Knoll, and already in 1965 the Cambridge Instrumentation Company offered its Stereoscan to DuPont. Now such devices are widely used in research centers.

Taking a look at the images below will take you on a journey through your body, from your head to your intestines and pelvic organs. You will see what normal cells look like and what happens to them when cancer affects them, and you will also get a visual idea of how, say, the first meeting of an egg and a sperm cell occurs.

Shown here is, you might say, the basis of your blood - red blood cells (RBC). These pretty biconcave cells are responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. Usually in one cubic millimeter of blood such cells are 4-5 million in women and 5-6 million in men. People living in the highlands, where there is a lack of oxygen, have even more red cells.

To avoid splitting hair that is invisible to the ordinary eye, you need to regularly cut your hair and use good shampoos and conditioners.

Of the 100 billion neurons in your brain, Purkinje cells are among the largest. Among other things, they are responsible for motor coordination in the cerebellar cortex. Both alcohol or lithium poisoning and autoimmune diseases, genetic abnormalities (including autism), as well as neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis etc.).

This is what stereocilia look like, that is, the sensory elements of the vestibular apparatus inside your ear. By capturing sound vibrations, they control reciprocal mechanical movements and actions.

Shown here are retinal blood vessels emerging from a black-colored optic nerve head. This disc is a "blind spot" since there are no light receptors in this area of the retina.

There are about 10,000 taste buds on the tongue that help identify salty, sour, bitter, sweet and spicy tastes.

To avoid such deposits similar to unmilled spikelets on the teeth, it is advisable to brush your teeth more often.

Remember how beautiful healthy red blood cells looked. Now look at how they become in the web of a deadly blood clot. In the very center is a white blood cell (leukocyte).

This is a view of your lung from the inside. Empty cavities are the alveoli, where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide.

Now take a look at how deformed lungs differ from healthy ones in the previous picture.

The villi of the small intestine increase its area, which contributes to better absorption of food. These are outgrowths of an irregular cylindrical shape up to 1.2 millimeters high. The basis of the villi is loose connective tissue. In the center, like a rod, passes a wide lymphatic capillary, or lactiferous sinus, and on the sides of it there are blood vessels and capillaries. Fats enter the lymph through the lactiferous sinus, and then fats enter the bloodstream, and proteins and carbohydrates enter the bloodstream through the blood capillaries of the villi. On closer inspection, food debris can be seen in the grooves.

Here you see a human egg. The egg cell is covered with a glycoprotein membrane (zona pellicuda), which not only protects it, but also helps to capture and retain the sperm. Two coronal cells are attached to the shell.

The picture captures the moment when several sperm are trying to fertilize an egg.

It looks like a war of the worlds, in fact, in front of you is an egg 5 days after fertilization. Some spermatozoa are still retained on its surface. The image was taken with a confocal (confocal) microscope. The ovum and sperm nuclei are purple, while the sperm flagella are green. Blue areas are nexuses, intercellular gap junctions that communicate between cells.

You are present at the beginning of a new life cycle. A six-day-old human embryo is implanted into the endometrium, the lining of the uterine cavity. Let's wish him good luck!

o Osteocytes- mature cells (unable to divide)

o Osteoblasts- young bone-forming bone cells that synthesize the intercellular substance - the matrix. As the intercellular substance accumulates, osteoblasts are walled up in it and become osteocytes (located in the periosteum; function - division, growth and regeneration of bone tissue)

o Osteoclasts- special macrophages of bone tissue (function - destruction of cells and intercellular spaces of the bone as they age and die off - "bone eaters")

Intercellular substance (matrix) - solid:

o Basic substance- a jelly-like mass of water, proteins, glycoproteins (mucopolysaccharides)

o Ossein fibers- thin threads (fibrils) formed from a fibrous strong protein - collagen (covered with crystals of hydroxyapatite salts, sulfate, calcium and magnesium carbonate)

From the intercellular substance are formed bone plates(bone cells lie between the plates)

o Bone plates form systems of cylinders of increasing diameter around the channels in the bone substance, where the supplying blood vessels and nerves are located - Haversian canals forming - structural and functional units of compact bone substance – osteons

Osteon – system of cylinders of increasing diameter, formed from bone plates, with a channel inside

o individual plates lie between osteons and stretch along the bone

o Haversian canals with vessels and nerves are densely branched inside the bones

o Osteons are arranged in an orderly manner according to the load

Bone is formed from bone tissue

Bone matter

Compact (dense) bone substance

o Bone plates adhere tightly to each other, forming a continuous layer

Cancellous bone

o Bone plates form loosely spaced bars (between them there is a space filled red bone marrow) - a porous structure resembling a sponge

o The plates of a spongy and compact substance are oriented in the direction opposing load, tension and compression, often intersect at an angle of 900 (a rigid and durable structure appears, in which the load is evenly distributed over the entire bone)

o With an increase in the load on the bone, the number of cancellous plates increases due to the bone-forming function of the periosteum, and when the direction of the load on the bone changes, the plates are reoriented

o Spongy bone substance does not have Haversian canals

o makes up most of the bone substance - completely fills all spongy, flat, and airways bones, as well as the ends (epiphyses) of long (tubular) bones under a thin layer of compact substance

o In early childhood, almost all bones of the skeleton consist only of cancellous substance and are filled with red bone marrow, which over time degenerates into fatty yellow bone marrow in the diaphysis of long bones

Functions of the spongy substance- an increase in the lightness and strength of the bones of the skeleton; the receptacle of the red bone marrow (hematopoietic organ)
The skeleton has a mass of 5-6 kg, it is 10% in men, and 8.5% in women of the total body weight.
The thigh can withstand a vertical load of 1500 kg., The tibia - 1650 kg., The humerus - 850 kg.
The outer layer of all bones consists of a compact substance and is covered with a bone-forming periosteum

The chemical composition of bone tissue(inorganic and organic substances)

Inorganic substances(mineral) -70% dry matter

o Water - 50%

o mineral salts - hydroxyapatites (phosphates), sulfates and carbonates of calcium, magnesium - 22%

ü the skeleton of an adult contains 1200 g of Ca, 530 g of P, 11 Mg and 30 other chemical elements

Meaning not organic matter - attach to bones physical properties – hardness and fragility

o found out in the experiment with the removal of organic substances from the bone by burning (calcining)

o bone is 30 times harder than brick, 2.5 times harder than granite, as strong as cast iron

Organic matter- 30% dry matter

o Protein(collagen, ossein) - 14%

o Fat - 16%

o Mucopolysaccharides ( complex biopolymer, consisting of proteins and carbohydrates)

The importance of organic matter- give bones physical properties: firmness, elasticity

o It is found out in an experiment on the removal of mineral salts from the bone by soaking it for 2-3 days in HCl (a weak solution of 2-5%); after decalcification, the bone can be tied in a knot

The combination of organic and mineral substances in the bones makes it simultaneously hard, elastic and very strong (comparable to the strength of metal)

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An amazing creation is a living cell. Another thing is no less surprising: a hundred trillion cells donate their freedom and form a huge community, a kind of "cell state" called the human body. Why do they do it? What is the law of nature obeyed?

Nobody knows that.

We are better informed about the laws by which this community lives. For example, cells adhere to the principle of division of labor. It manifests itself even at the stage when the embryo is a shapeless lump. Already at this time, his cells are specialized - they begin to perform different tasks, uniting for this in the colony.

Scientists call this process the formation of germ layers. Later, they develop body tissue- so called systems of cells with general structure or origin, which perform the same tasks in the body. Let us liken cells to individual bricks, and the human body to a building built from them.

Microscopic structure of bones

Then the fabric can be compared to its parts: walls, roof, floor.

Cell communities of the same origin and structure that perform the same tasks are called tissues.

The human body is built from four types of tissues: connective, epithelial, muscular and nervous... This shows how the thinnest stained tissue sections look under a microscope.

Connective tissue

As its name implies, it connects the cells of the body.

The abilities of the cells of this tissue are amazing. Some of them form tough or elastic fibers, with the help of which they connect with other cells. The length of the fibers sometimes reaches 1 cm. Sometimes the fibers of this tissue form thick veins - tendons.
Cartilage tissue

All cells connective tissue their fibrous processes are immersed in a gelatinous mass - an intercellular substance, sometimes very dense.

The viscous connective tissue is called cartilage. It acts as a shock absorber in the joint. In other parts of the body, calcium salts are interspersed into the intercellular substance. They give the connective tissue strength, and it becomes hard, like a stone. This tissue is called bone. Bones are formed from it. They support our body and protect the most sensitive parts of it - the head and spinal cord, eyes or, forming the chest, heart and lungs.

Epithelial tissue

Protects the outer and inner surfaces of the body.

The outside of the body is covered with skin. In some areas, epithelial cells turn into horny scales. These areas, such as the soles and palms, are most susceptible to mechanical stress. Epithelial tissue also lines some body cavities: the nose and sinuses, middle ear, mouth, larynx, trachea, bronchi and pulmonary vesicles, esophagus and gastrointestinal tract, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder and urethra, and in women, the vagina, uterus and fallopian tubes.

All hollow organs are covered with epithelial tissue from the inside. Closed cavities are lined with it: the head, chest and abdomen. The epithelium envelops the thinnest layer of cells and organs lying in these cavities, and does not allow, for example, movable organs, lungs or intestines, to grow together with the chest cavity or abdominal cavity.

Epithelial tissue forms an inner shell blood vessels and hearts.

Capillaries - the thinnest blood vessels consist of only one layer of squamous epithelial cells. The exchange of substances between blood and tissue fluid takes place through the walls of the capillaries.

Cells live in tissue fluid, like in a nutrient solution. The blood supplies this liquid with nutrients and at the same time cleans it of toxins that accumulate in cells during metabolism.

Special tasks for glandular cells... This is the name of the epithelial cells that produce and secrete a special substance - a secret, or body juice.

The glandular cells of the epithelial tissue of the nose, mouth, esophagus and gastrointestinal tract are called mucous membranes, and the parts of the body where they are located are called mucous membranes.

Other glandular cells form exocrine glands. These include sweat, sebaceous, lacrimal, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, as well as special male glands - testes and prostate. The secretions produced by these glands are sweat, sebum, tears, saliva, bile, gastric juice and seminal fluid through the exit ducts to the surface of the human skin or mucous membranes.

Nerve tissue

Muscle

consists of long cells that can contract.

Cells nervous tissue in their shape, they are similar to stars with numerous branched rays, to triangles with three main processes, or to a spindle. And sometimes they take completely wrong shapes.

All nerve cells have one thing in common: they produce or conduct an electric current.

Bone and cartilaginous, adipose, muscle and nerve tissues

Bone

The bone tissue that forms the bones of the skeleton is very strong. It maintains the shape of the body (constitution) and protects the organs located in the cranium, chest and pelvic cavities, and participates in mineral metabolism. The tissue consists of cells (osteocytes) and intercellular substance, which contains nutrient channels with blood vessels. The intercellular substance contains up to 70% of mineral salts (calcium, phosphorus and magnesium).

In its development, bone tissue passes through the fibrous and lamellar stages.

In different parts of the bone, it is organized in the form of a compact or cancellous bone substance.

Cancellous bone tissue

Cartilage tissue

Cartilage tissue consists of cells (chondrocytes) and extracellular substance (cartilage matrix), characterized by increased elasticity.

It performs a supporting function, as it forms the bulk of the cartilage.

There are three types of cartilaginous tissue: hyaline, which is part of the cartilage of the trachea, bronchi, ends of the ribs, articular surfaces of bones; elastic, forming the auricle and epiglottis; fibrous, located in the intervertebral discs and joints of the pubic bones.

Cartilage tissue

Adipose tissue

Adipose tissue is like loose connective tissue.

The cells are large, filled with fat. Adipose tissue performs nutritional, shape-forming and thermoregulatory functions.

Bone structure under a microscope

Adipose tissue is classified into two types: white and brown. In humans, white adipose tissue predominates, part of it surrounds organs, maintaining their position in the human body and other functions.

The amount of brown adipose tissue in humans is small (it is present mainly in a newborn baby). The main function of brown adipose tissue is heat production.

Brown adipose tissue maintains the body temperature of animals during hibernation and the temperature of newborn babies.

Adipose tissue

Muscle

Muscle cells are called muscle fibers because they are constantly stretched in one direction.

The classification of muscle tissues is carried out on the basis of the structure of the tissue (histologically): by the presence or absence of transverse striation, and on the basis of the mechanism of contraction - voluntary (as in skeletal muscle) or involuntary (smooth or cardiac muscle).

Muscle tissue has excitability and the ability to actively contract under the influence of the nervous system and certain substances.

Microscopic differences make it possible to distinguish two types of this tissue - smooth (non-striated) and striated (striated).

Smooth muscle tissue It has cellular structure... It forms the muscular membranes of the walls of internal organs (intestines, uterus, bladder, etc.), blood and lymph vessels; its reduction occurs involuntarily.

Smooth muscle tissue under the microscope

consists of muscle fibers, each of which is represented by many thousands of cells, fused, in addition to their nuclei, into one structure.

It forms skeletal muscle. We can shorten them at will.

Skeletal muscle tissue under a microscope

A type of striated muscle tissue is the heart muscle, which has unique abilities.

Cardiac muscle tissue under a microscope

During life (about 70 years), the heart muscle contracts more than 2.5 million times. No other fabric has this potential for durability. The cardiac muscle tissue has a transverse striation. However, unlike skeletal muscle, there are special areas here where muscle fibers close. Thanks to this structure, the contraction of one fiber is quickly transmitted to neighboring ones.

Nerve tissue

Nervous tissue consists of two types of cells: nerve cells (neurons) and glial cells.

Glial cells adhere closely to the neuron, performing supporting, nutritional, secretory and protective functions.

Types of nervous tissue

Neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of nervous tissue.

Its main feature is the ability to generate nerve impulses and transmit excitation to other neurons or muscle and glandular cells of working organs. Neurons can be made up of a body and processes. Nerve cells are designed to conduct nerve impulses... Having received information on one part of the surface, the neuron very quickly transmits it to another part of its surface. Since the processes of the neuron are very long, information is transmitted over long distances.

Most neurons have two types of processes: short, thick, branching near the body - dendrites and long (up to 1.5 m), thin and branching only at the very end - axons.

Axons form nerve fibers.

A nerve impulse is an electrical wave traveling at high speed along a nerve fiber.

Depending on the functions performed and the structural features, all nerve cells are subdivided into three types: sensitive, motor (executive) and intercalated. Motor fibers, which are part of the nerves, transmit signals to muscles and glands, sensory fibers transmit information about the state of organs to the central nervous system.

Lymphoid organs
Hematopoiesis
Pericardium
Lymph nodes of the abdominal cavity, head, chest wall, pelvis in livestock
Macroenergy compounds
Gas discharge imaging method
Diagnostic methodology using EMF
Regulation mechanism in organisms
Mechanical fabrics
Mitotic cell division

Human tissues and organs under a microscope (15 photos)

Almost all of the images shown here were taken with a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

The electron beam emitted by such a device interacts with the atoms of the desired object, resulting in 3D images of the highest resolution. A magnification of 250,000 times allows you to see details in the size of 1-5 nanometers (that is, billionths of a meter).

The first SEM image was obtained in 1935 by Max Knoll, and already in 1965 the Cambridge Instrumentation Company offered its Stereoscan to DuPont.

Now such devices are widely used in research centers.

Red blood cells

Shown here is, you might say, the basis of your blood - red blood cells (RBC).

These pretty biconcave cells are responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. Usually in one cubic millimeter of blood such cells are 4-5 million in women and 5-6 million in men. People living in the highlands, where there is a lack of oxygen, have even more red cells.

Split human hair

To avoid splitting hair that is invisible to the ordinary eye, you need to regularly cut your hair and use good shampoos and conditioners.

Purkinje cells

Of the 100 billion neurons in your brain, Purkinje cells are among the largest.

Among other things, they are responsible for motor coordination in the cerebellar cortex. Both alcohol or lithium poisoning and autoimmune diseases, genetic abnormalities (including autism), as well as neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis, etc.)

Sensitive ear hairs

This is what stereocilia look like, that is, the sensory elements of the vestibular apparatus inside your ear. By capturing sound vibrations, they control the reciprocal mechanical movements and actions.

Optic nerve blood vessels

Shown here are retinal blood vessels emerging from a black-colored optic nerve head.

How to identify bone tissue under a microscope?

This disc is a "blind spot" since there are no light receptors in this area of the retina.

Taste papilla of the tongue

There are about 10,000 taste buds on the tongue that help identify salty, sour, bitter, sweet and spicy tastes.

Plaque

To avoid such deposits similar to unmilled spikelets on the teeth, it is advisable to brush your teeth more often.

Thrombus

Remember how beautiful healthy red blood cells looked.

Now look at how they become in the web of a deadly blood clot. In the very center is a white blood cell (leukocyte).

Pulmonary alveoli

This is a view of your lung from the inside.

Empty cavities are the alveoli, where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide.

Lung cancer cells

Now take a look at how deformed lungs differ from healthy ones in the previous picture.

Small intestine villi

The villi of the small intestine increase its area, which contributes to better absorption of food.

These are outgrowths of an irregular cylindrical shape up to 1.2 millimeters high. The basis of the villi is loose connective tissue. In the center, like a rod, passes a wide lymphatic capillary, or lactiferous sinus, and on the sides of it there are blood vessels and capillaries.

Fats enter the lymph through the lactiferous sinus, and then fats enter the bloodstream, and proteins and carbohydrates enter the bloodstream through the blood capillaries of the villi. On closer inspection, you can see food debris in the grooves.

Human ovum with coronal cells

Here you see a human egg.

The egg cell is covered with a glycoprotein membrane (zona pellicuda), which not only protects it, but also helps to capture and retain the sperm. Two coronal cells are attached to the shell.

Sperm on the surface of the egg

The picture captures the moment when several sperm are trying to fertilize an egg.

Human embryo and sperm

It looks like a war of the worlds, in fact, in front of you is an egg 5 days after fertilization.

Some spermatozoa are still retained on its surface. The image was taken with a confocal (confocal) microscope. The ovum and sperm nuclei are purple, while the sperm flagella are green. Blue areas are nexuses, intercellular gap junctions that communicate between cells.

Human embryo implantation

You are present at the beginning of a new life cycle.

A six-day-old human embryo is implanted into the endometrium, the lining of the uterine cavity. Let's wish him good luck!

Via 15 Beautiful Microscopic Images from Inside the Human Body

	Place mouse arrow on the photo and you will be able to see it without signs (for slow loading - do not remove the mouse arrow from the picture until an unmarked picture appears)
PLATE (MATURE) BONE 1 - osteon
PLATE (MATURE) BONE staining with thionine and picric acid 1 - osteon (for demonstration, two osteons indicated by a dotted line) 2 - osteon canal (Havers canal) 3 - insertion bone plates
PLATE (MATURE) BONE staining with thionine and picric acid 1 - osteon 2 - osteon canal (Havers canal) 3 - insertion bone plates 4 - external common plates 5 - periosteum
PLATE (MATURE) BONE staining with thionine and picric acid 1 - osteon 2 - osteon canal (Havers canal) 3 - insertion bone plates 6 - osteocytes
2 - osteocytes 3 - periosteum
ROUGH FIBER (UNMATURE) BONE staining with hematoxylin-eosin 1 - intercellular substance of the bone 2 - osteocytes 3 - periosteum 4 - osteoclast
OSTEOCYTES staining with hematoxylin

Cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue, blood

Answers:

1. Mineral salts - sodium chloride, potassium chloride, etc.

play an important role in the distribution of water between cells and

intercellular substance. Separate chemical elements:

oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, iron, magnesium, zinc, iodine,

phosphorus is involved in the creation of vital organic

connections.

The meaning and function of water:

1) Universal solvent

2) Transport: water provides transport (movement) of substances in the body.

3) Thermoregulatory - protects the body from overheating and hypothermia.

4) Required for hydrolysis and oxidation of proteins, carbohydrates, fats (high molecular weight organic compounds).

5) The functions of water are largely determined by the chemical nature (the dipole nature of the structure of molecules, the polarity of the molecules and the ability to form hydrogen bonds).

The value of water in the body is very high.

Water necessary to dissolve most chemical compounds in the body. The processing of various nutrients and the release of waste products are only possible with sufficient water. Water makes up about 65% of the mass in the body. A person excretes a significant amount of water together with urine, sweat, as well as in the form of water vapor contained in the exhaled air.

Body tissues of birds

These losses must be replenished by the daily intake of 1-2 liters of water into the body. However, this amount depends on the work performed by the person and the ambient temperature. For example, in summer, when sweating increases, the body needs more water than in winter, when sweating decreases.

Water - the predominant component of all living organisms.

Sources in the human body water and mineral salts mainly food and drink.

2. Textile Is a group of cells and intercellular substance,

united by a common structure, function and origin.

There are four main types of tissue in the human body:

epithelial(integumentary), connective, muscular and nervous,

Muscle

This fabric is formed muscle fibers.

Their cytoplasm contains the finest filaments capable of contraction. Allocate smooth and striated muscle tissue. Cross-striped fabric is called because its fibers have a cross-striation, which is an alternation of light and dark stripes.

Smooth muscle tissue is part of the walls of internal organs (stomach, intestines, bladder, blood vessels).

Striated muscle tissue subdivided into skeletal and cardiac.

Skeletal muscle tissue consists of elongated fibers reaching a length of 10-12 cm.

Cardiac muscle tissue, like skeletal tissue, has a transverse striation. However, unlike skeletal muscle, there are special areas here where muscle fibers close. Due to this structure, the contraction of one fiber is quickly transmitted to neighboring ones.

This ensures the simultaneous contraction of large areas of the heart muscle.

studopedia.org - Studopedia.Org - 2014-2018. (0.001 s) ...

The human body is a form of the existence of living matter. In it, the metabolism proceeds continuously, the ability to reproduce is maintained. The science that studies tissue cells and extracellular structures that have a common structure and function is called histology. The purpose of this review is to get acquainted with fabrics under microscope- biology in this area is closely intertwined with medicine. The first knowledge was obtained long before the invention optical instruments, but in our time, histological studies are practically unthinkable without microscopy.

Consider tissue under the microscope- biology classifies them into four groups. Epithelial- the outer layer of human skin, lines the body cavities, forms glands and membranes of internal organs. It is subdivided into glandular, cubic and squamous epithelium. The cells have the appearance shown in Figure 1.

Connecting(auxiliary) - provides strength, elasticity and support to all organs, containing on average 70-80 percent of their mass. It retains heat, prevents damage, shock, stroma and dermis. It is divided into cartilaginous, bone, fatty and dense.

Muscular- is responsible for movement, capable of contractions, i.e. changes in cell size under the influence of biologically active chemical substances. Classification: striated skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

Nervous- creates conditions for the interrelated regulation of the activity of all systems and consists of electrically excitable neurons (contain a nucleus and many processes).

The technique for studying tissues consists in making a micropreparation and viewing it under a microscope. The microscopy method is referred to as the "bright field method in transmitted light". What it means: Light rays from bottom to top pass through the specimen and magnifying lenses, forming an image. To ensure this process, you will need a bottom illumination - mirror or LED.

Preparation of a histological specimen:

Fixation of a tissue fragment is performed. Its purpose is to preserve the vital structure, for which long-term processing is carried out aqueous solution formaldehyde (formalin). This prevents it from rotting and decay.
Dehydration for subsequent microtomy. This gives firmness. Sealing can be achieved by successive immersion in xylene and ethyl alcohol. Isopropanol is also used due to its low toxicity.
Pouring with molten paraffin.
Cutting with a microtome into pieces with a thickness of 1-50 microns (micrometers).
Staining with hematoxylin and eosin - makes all significant areas of the microsample contrasting.
Conclusion between the slide and the cover slip. At higher magnifications, this will provide better focusing across the entire plane.

The magnification factor should change gradually from the smallest to the highest. Initially use the combination: 4x objective, 10x eyepiece, which together gives 4 * 10 = 40x.
Place the tissue specimen exactly in the center of the microscope stage and check that the condenser (disk with diaphragms) is turned towards the illuminator by the widest opening.
Focus smoothly and slowly, do not shake and carelessly touch the tripod.

With in-depth studies of microscopy, it becomes important for novice biologists and physicians to study histological samples. They are prepared using a special technology with dissection of biological tissue into thin sections using a microtome. We will briefly talk about this in this review using the example of brain research under microscope... We will need a binocular or trinocular model with a bottom illuminator providing a transmitted light observation method (bright field).

Brain is located in the cerebral section of the skull (bony part of the head) of humans and vertebrates, and is the main organ of the central nervous system. In this center of control of the activity of a living organism, many electrically excitable neurons are combined due to synoptic transmission of nerve impulses.

Currently, the brain is not fully understood, many aspects remain unclear, despite a large number of laboratories for anatomy and architectonics, and a huge amount of work done by scientists around the world. It is known that in humans, its mass is equal to an average of two percent of the total body weight. It has a complex structure and wide functionality.

Tissues that can be seen in a microscope of the brain under the microscope:

Connective fibrous fibrous. Forms hard, arachnoid and pia mater. The main cells in its composition: fibroblasts, synthesizing components of the intercellular substance;
Cerebrospinal fluid (called "cerebrospinal fluid"), which performs protective functions and continuously circulates in the lateral, third and fourth ventricles (cavities). It also maintains a healthy intracranial pressure. It is produced by the choroid plexuses - formations that, at 1000x magnification, are distinguishable as villi;
Nerve fibers are visible processes of neurons covered with glia;
Glial cells.
A network of elastic blood vessels composed of myocytes.

It will not be possible to prepare a micropreparation without special medical equipment, in this case it is recommended to use a ready-made sample included in the Anatomy and Physiology kit (Micromed or Levenhuk).

Stages of creating a microsample in a pathological laboratory:

Taking biomaterial for diagnosis by a surgeon or pathologist;
Fixation in formalin or alcohol solution.
Hematoxylin eosin staining
Freezing. Deep chilling promotes the hardening required for microtome slicing;
Installation between the microscope slide and the cover slip.

The microsample is placed in the slide or under the metal clamps of the microscope stage. Then it is centered so that the light radiation penetrates the drug from below, passing through the cell structure up towards the optical system. The condenser is regulated for maximum light transmission. Initially, a "search" objective of the minimum magnification is selected on the revolver, then the degree of approximation is increased step by step to 400x and 1000x.

results research activities are recorded in the form of photographs - for this, a digital camera is inserted into one of the eyepiece tubes of the visual attachment and connected to a computer. Photographing is carried out by software.

Cancer cells develop from healthy particles in the body. They do not penetrate into tissues and organs from the outside, but are part of them.

Under the influence of factors that have not been fully studied, malignant formations stop responding to signals and begin to behave differently. The appearance of the cell also changes.

A malignant tumor forms from a single cell that has become cancerous. This is due to the modifications occurring in the genes. Most malignant particles have 60 or more mutations.

Before the final transformation into a cancer cell, it undergoes a series of transformations. As a result, some of the pathological cells die, but a few survive and become oncological.

When a normal cell mutates, it goes into the stage of hyperplasia, then atypical hyperplasia, turns into carcinoma. Over time, it becomes invasive, that is, it moves through the body.

What is a healthy particle

It is generally accepted that cells are the first step in the organization of all living organisms. They are responsible for ensuring all vital functions, such as growth, metabolism, transmission of biological information. In the literature, it is customary to call them somatic, that is, those that make up the entire human body, except for those that take part in sexual reproduction.

The particles that make up a person are very diverse. However, they have a number of common features... All healthy elements go through the same stages of their life path. Everything starts from birth, then the process of maturation and functioning takes place. Ends with the death of the particle as a result of the triggering of the genetic mechanism.

The process of self-destruction is called apoptosis, it occurs without disrupting the vitality of surrounding tissues and inflammatory reactions.

For his life cycle healthy particles divide a certain number of times, that is, they begin to reproduce only if necessary. This happens after receiving a signal to divide. The division limit is absent in the genital and stem cells, lymphocytes.

Five interesting facts

Malignant particles form from healthy tissue. In the course of their development, they begin to differ significantly from ordinary cells.

Scientists managed to identify the main features of oncological particles:

Shares endlessly- the pathological cell is constantly doubling and increasing in size. Over time, this leads to the formation of a tumor, consisting of a huge number of copies of the oncological particle.
Cells separate from each other and exist autonomously- they lose their molecular bond and cease to stick together. This leads to the movement of malignant elements throughout the body and their deposition on various organs.
Can't manage its life cycle- p53 protein is responsible for cell restoration. In most cancer cells, this protein is defective, so life cycle management is not well established. Experts call this defect immortality.
Lack of development- malignant elements lose their signal with the body and are engaged in endless division, not having time to mature. Because of this, multiple gene errors are formed in them, affecting their functional abilities.
Each cell has different external parameters- pathological elements are formed from various healthy parts of the body, which have their own characteristics in appearance. Therefore, they differ in size and shape.

There are malignant elements that do not form a lump, but accumulate in the blood. An example is leukemia. Cancer cells get more and more errors as they divide... This leads to the fact that the subsequent elements of the tumor may be completely different from the original pathological particle.

Many experts believe that cancer particles begin to move inside the body immediately after the formation of a neoplasm. To do this, they use blood and lymph vessels. Most of them die as a result of the immune system, but a few survive and settle on healthy tissues.

All the detailed information about cancer cells in this scientific lecture:

The structure of the malignant particle

Disturbances in genes lead not only to changes in the functioning of cells, but also to disorganization of their structure. They vary in size, internal structure, and the shape of a complete set of chromosomes. These visible abnormalities allow specialists to distinguish them from healthy particles. Examining cells under a microscope can diagnose cancer.

Core

The nucleus contains tens of thousands of genes. They direct the functioning of the cell, dictating its behavior to it. Most often, the nuclei are located in the central part, but in some cases they can move to one of the sides of the membrane.

In cancer cells, the nuclei differ most of all, they become larger, acquire a spongy structure. The nuclei have depressed segments, an incised membrane, and enlarged and distorted nucleoli.

Protein

Protein challenge in performing basic functions that are necessary to maintain cell viability. They transport to her nutrients, convert them into energy, transmit information about changes in the external environment. Some proteins are enzymes whose job is to convert unused substances into essential foods.

In a cancer cell, proteins are modified, they lose the ability to do their job correctly. Errors affect enzymes and the life cycle of the particle changes.

Mitochondria

The part of the cell in which products such as proteins, sugar, lipids are converted into energy is called mitochondria. This conversion uses oxygen. As a result, toxic waste products such as free radicals are generated. It is believed that it is they who can start the process of turning a cell into a cancerous one.

Plasma membrane

All elements of the particle are surrounded by a wall made of lipids and proteins. The membrane's job is to keep all of them in place. In addition, it blocks the path of those substances that should not enter the cell from the body.

Special membrane proteins, which are its receptors, perform important function. They transmit to the cell coded messages by which it reacts to changes in the environment..

The misreading of genes leads to changes in the production of receptors. Because of this, the particle does not learn about changes in the external environment and begins to lead an autonomous way of existence. This behavior leads to cancer.

Malignant particles of different organs

Cancer cells can be recognized by the peculiarities of their shape. Not only do they behave differently, but they also look different from normal.

Scientists from Clarkson University conducted research, which led to the conclusion that healthy and abnormal particles differ in geometric outlines. For example, malignant cervical cancer cells have a higher degree of fractality.

Fractal are called geometric figures which are made up of similar parts. Each of them looks like a copy of the entire figure.

Scientists were able to obtain images of cancer cells using an atomic force microscope. The device made it possible to obtain a three-dimensional map of the surface of the particle under study.

Scientists continue to study changes in fractality during the process of converting normal particles into cancer ones.

Lungs' cancer

Lung pathology is non-small cell and small cell. In the first case, tumor particles divide slowly, in the later stages they are pinched off from the maternal focus and move through the body due to the lymph flow.

In the second case, the particles of the neoplasm are small in size and tend to rapidly divide. Within a month, the number of cancer particles doubles. Tumor elements are capable of spreading to both organs and bone tissues.

The cage has irregular shape with rounded sections. Multiple growths of different structures are visible on the surface. The color of the cell is beige at the edges, and turns red towards the middle.

Breast cancer

Cancer formation in the breast can consist of particles that have been transformed from components such as connective and glandular tissue, ducts. The elements of the tumor themselves can be large and small. With highly differentiated breast pathology, the particles differ in nuclei of the same size.

The cell has a rounded shape, its surface is loose and non-uniform. Long straight processes protrude from it in all directions. At the edges, the color of the cancer cell is lighter and brighter, and inside it is darker and richer.

Skin cancer

Skin oncology is most often associated with the transformation of melanocytes into a malignant form. Cells are located in the skin anywhere in the body. Experts often associate these pathological changes with prolonged exposure to the open sun or in a solarium. Ultraviolet radiation contributes to the mutation of healthy skin elements.

Cancer cells develop on the surface of the skin for a long time. In some cases, pathological particles behave more aggressively, rapidly growing deep into the skin.

Cancer cell has a rounded shape, on the entire surface of which multiple villi are visible. Their color is lighter than that of the membrane.

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