The meaning of the First World War is brief. Post-war peace settlement in Europe Significance of World War I post-war settlement

1. First World War ended with the defeat of Germany and its allies. After the conclusion of the Compiegne armistice, the victorious powers began to develop plans for a post-war "settlement". The post-war peace "settlement" in the interests of the victorious powers was completed by the Washington Conference of 1921-1922. Treaties with Germany and its former allies and agreements signed at the Washington Conference formed the so-called Versailles-Washington system of peace. As a result of compromises and deals, it not only failed to eliminate the contradictions between the imperialist powers, but significantly intensified them.

A struggle for a new division of the world began between the main powers.

2. In terms of its scale and consequences, the First World War had no equal in the entire previous history of mankind.

It lasted 4 years, 3 months and 10 days (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918), covering 38 countries with a population of over 11.5 billion people.

In the Entente countries, about 45 million people were mobilized, in the coalition of the Central Powers - 25 million, and only 70 million people.

The most efficient part was removed from material production and thrown into mutual destruction.

By the end of the war, the numbers ground forces increased in comparison with peacetime in Russia by 8.5 times, in France by 5, in Germany by 9, in Austria-Hungary by 8 times.

The large number of armies led to the formation of vast fronts, the total length of which reached 3-4 thousand km.

3. The war demanded the mobilization of all material resources, showing the decisive role of the economy in the course of the armed struggle. The First World War was characterized by the massive use of a variety of military equipment.

The industry of the belligerent powers provided the front with millions of rifles, over 1 million light and heavy machine guns, over 150,000 artillery pieces, 47.7 billion cartridges, over 1 billion shells, 9,200 tanks, and about 18,000 aircraft. During the war years, the number of heavy artillery pieces increased 8 times, machine guns 20 times, aircraft 24 times. The multimillion-dollar armies demanded a continuous supply of food, uniforms, and fodder.

The growth in military production was achieved mainly due to peaceful industries and overvoltage National economy... This led to a violation of the proportions between various sectors of production, and, ultimately, to a decrease in the indicators of the economy.

It was especially severely undermined Agriculture... Mobilization into the army deprived the village of the most productive work force and taxes.

The sown area has decreased, the yield has fallen, the number of livestock and its productivity have decreased.

In the cities of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia, there was an acute shortage of food, and then a real famine broke out. It also spread to the army, where the norms of allowances were reduced.

4. The First World War required colossal financial costs, which many times exceeded the costs in all previous wars. There is no scientifically based estimate of the total cost of World War I.

The most widespread in the literature is the estimate given by the American economist E. Bogart, who determined the total cost of the war at 359.9 billion dollars in gold (699.4 billion rubles), including direct (budget) expenditures of 280.3 billion rubles. dollars (405 billion rubles) and indirect - 151.6 billion dollars (294.4 billion rubles).

5. The First World War was an important stage in the history of military art, in the development of the armed forces.

In 1916, tanks appeared - a powerful strike and maneuverable force. Tank forces developed rapidly and by the end of the war there were 8 thousand tanks in the Entente countries.

Aviation experienced rapid development. Various types of aviation have emerged - fighter, reconnaissance, bomber, and assault. By the end of the war, the warring countries had over 10 thousand combat aircraft. In the fight against aviation, air defense was developed.

Chemical troops appeared.

The importance of the cavalry as a kind of troops declined, and by the end of the war, its numbers sharply declined.

The role of the military rear and the material and technical support of the troops has significantly increased.

Rail and road transport has become very important.

6. The war brought unprecedented hardships and suffering to mankind, universal hunger and devastation, brought all mankind to the brink of an abyss.

During the war, there was a massive destruction of material assets, the total value of which was 58 billion rubles. Entire areas (especially in northern France) were turned into desert.

9.5 million people was killed and died of wounds, 20 million people were wounded, of which 3.5 million were crippled. The largest losses were suffered by Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses). The population decline for these reasons only in 12 warring states amounted to more than 20 million people, including 5 million people in Russia, 4.4 million people in Austria-Hungary, and 4.2 million people in Germany.

Unemployment, inflation, higher taxes, higher prices - all this has exacerbated the need, poverty, extreme insecurity of the overwhelming majority of the population of the belligerent countries.

7. The collapse of the Russian army in the First World War is a natural stage in the development of socio-economic processes in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century, the result of its internal and foreign policy in this period.

Having won a number of brilliant victories and having suffered several defeats, the Russian army in the First World War declared itself to be a serious military force.

However, due to serious internal and external reasons, the Russian army was unable to timely take a firm position on the issues of war and revolution, and as a result slid down the path of destruction and split.

The last test of the remnants of the Russian army was the Civil War in Russia, where victory was on the side of that part of it, which went to The twentieth century to prove their vitality.

The beginning of the cold war

§ 32. Consequences of war. Post-war peace settlement

The consequences of the war. The Second World War left its stamp on the entire history of the world in the second half of the 20th century.

In contrast to the First, in the Second World War, most of the loss of life fell on the civilian population. In the USSR alone, at least 27 million people died. In Germany, concentration camps were destroyed 16 million people. Victims of war and repression in the west European countries ah there are 5 million people. For every person killed in hostilities, there were two wounded or captured. To these 60 million lost lives in Europe must be added the many millions who died in the Pacific and other theaters of World War II.

During the war years, tens of millions of people left their former places of residence. In Germany, 8 million people were herded from different European countries as a labor force. After the capture of Poland by Germany, over 1.5 million Poles were expelled from the so-called native German. territories. Tens of thousands of Frenchmen were expelled from Alsace-Lorraine. Millions of people fled from war zones. After the end of the war, huge masses of the population began to move in the opposite direction: the Germans were evicted from Poland and Czechoslovakia, from the former Prussia, etc. In the post-war years, millions of people became refugees. V 1945 at least 12 million Europeans were recognized« displaced persons ", who have lost contact with their native places. An even greater number of people were knocked out of their usual living conditions, lost their property, lost their citizenship and profession.

The material losses of the war period are enormous. On the European continent thousands of cities and villages were turned into ruins, factories, factories, bridges, roads were destroyed, a significant part of Vehicle... Agriculture was particularly hard hit by the war. Huge areas of agricultural land were abandoned, and the livestock population was cut by more than half. In the early post-war years, famine in a number of countries was added to the hardships of the war. Many economists and scientists, politicians then believed that Europe was not able to recover in any short time, it would take decades.

Simultaneously with economic, demographic and social problems and in the countries liberated from Nazi domination, the political problems of the revival of Europe arose. It was necessary to overcome the political, social and moral consequences of totalitarian regimes, to carry out the restoration of statehood, democratic institutions, political parties, create new constitutional norms, etc. The primary task was the eradication of Nazism, fascism, punishment of the perpetrators of the bloodiest war in the history of civilization.

The situation in post-war Europe and in the world as a whole was complicated by the fact that in place of the joint collective actions of countries anti-Hitler coalition came the split of the world into two systems, began confrontation with the USSR and USA, the two most powerful powers. Conflict relations between the two great victorious powers in the common struggle against Hitlerite Germany were determined by ideological differences, a different approach to solving current problems, to the prospects for peaceful development. The question was harshly posed - communism or capitalism, totalitarianism or democracy. but in the first post-war years, the great powers acted within the framework of agreements O the post-war world, determined by the decisions they made in the final phase of World War II.

Post-war peace settlement. The most important agreements on post-war problems were reached at the Crimean (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945) conferences of the leaders of the USSR, the USA and Great Britain. At these conferences, the main lines of the policy of the victorious powers towards Germany were determined, including territorial issues concerning Poland, as well as the preparation and conclusion of peace treaties with Germany's allies - Italy, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and Finland. For implementation of preparatory work for a peaceful settlement was established by the Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM), representing the main powers. Peace treaties prepared for Paris Peace Conference, entered into force in 1947. (an agreement with Austria was concluded later, in 1955).

Settlement in relation to Germany. The decisions of the Allies with regard to Germany provided for its long-term occupation and UNION control, the purpose of which was: “German militarism and Nazism will be eradicated, and the Allies, in agreement with each other, now and in the future, will take other measures necessary for so that Germany will never again threaten its neighbors or the preservation of world peace. "

The territory of Germany was divided into occupation zones: the eastern zone was controlled by the military administration of the USSR, and the three western zones were respectively controlled by the occupation authorities of the USA, Great Britain and France. Berlin was also divided into four zones.

The commanders-in-chief of the armed forces of the four powers became members of the control council, which was to be guided by the basic political and economic principles in the implementation of the goals of the occupation of Germany: complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany, the elimination of its war production, the destruction of the National Socialist Party and all Nazi institutions and all Nazi propaganda; war criminals were to be arrested and brought to justice, Nazi leaders and the leadership of Nazi institutions were to be arrested interned, Nazi Party members were to be removed from public and semi-public positions and from their respective posts in important private enterprises. The Allies also agreed to decentralize the German economy in order to eliminate the excessive concentration of economic power in the form of cartels, syndicates, and trusts. Taking into account “the need to maintain military security. freedom of speech, press and religion, the creation of free trade unions will be allowed.

Thus, the policy of the powers in relation to Germany provided for denazification, democratization and decartelization.

It was assumed that the occupation authorities would create conditions for the democratic development of Germany as a whole. However, the split of Germany into eastern and western zones, between which the border of two warring systems lay, stretched for many decades.

In 1949. two states arose on its territory: in the western zones federal Republic Germany and in the eastern zone of the German Democratic Republic. Thus, a peace treaty with Germany was not concluded and the conflicts of the two systems took place along the border between the two German states. Only in 1990, in connection with the unification of Germany, both the occupation and the quadripartite agreements regarding Germany ceased to operate.

The question of a peace treaty with Austria. The question of peace treaty with Austria. The reason was the confrontation between the two world powers. The USSR strove for Austria to maintain neutrality and the obligation not to enter into military-political blocs. Such an agreement, as well as an article on the inadmissibility of the Anschluss, that is, the absorption of Austria by Germany, just as it took place on the eve of World War II, were recorded in the peace treaty and the Austrian constitution. In 1955, this made it possible to end the conflict with the signing of a peace treaty.

The question of a peace treaty with Japan. An important part of the new post-war structure of international relations was peaceful settlement in the Far East. After the surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945, the country was occupied American troops, and the commander-in-chief of these troops, General MacArthur, carried out virtually the sole control of the occupation administration. Only at the end of the year, the Far Eastern Commission of representatives of 11 states and the Union Council of representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and China were created.

The contradictions between the USSR and the USA over the post-war structure of Japan turned out to be very sharp. The United States took the path of preparing a separate peace treaty without the participation of the USSR and a number of other interested countries, including the People's Republic of China, which was formed in October 1949 as a result of the victory of the revolution.

In September 1951, a conference was held in San Francisco to conclude a peace treaty with Japan. The organizers of the conference did not heed the amendments and additions introduced by the delegation of the USSR and a number of other participants in the USSR. and other participants in the conference were not taken into account.The USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia refused to join the treaty.

The question of a peace treaty between the USSR and Japan remained unresolved.

Creation of the UN. The establishment of the United Nations has become an integral part of the peaceful post-war settlement. The UN was created at the final stage of World War II at a conference in San Francisco (April 25 "- June 26, 1945). Initially 51 states participated in its creation, all members of the anti-Hitler coalition. The UN Charter entered into force on October 24, 1945. This date is celebrated as OOH Day.

The UN Charter contains its goals: the maintenance of international peace and security, the suppression of acts of aggression, the peaceful resolution of international disputes, the development of friendly relations between nations, the implementation of international cooperation in resolving problems of an economic, social and humanitarian nature, the promotion and development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for everyone, without diff ichiya race, gender, language and religion. The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly and the Security Council, the International Court of Justice, a number of specialized councils and other intergovernmental organizations. The General Assembly meets annually, and the Security Council is a permanent body charged with the responsibility of keeping peace. The Security Council includes 5 permanent members (USA, Russia, Great Britain, France, China) and 6 non-permanent members, which are replaced every two years. An important principle in the activities of the Council, which made it possible to preserve this organization in the conditions of the post-war confrontation between the great powers, was the principle of unanimity of the five permanent members when making decisions to suppress aggression "and maintain peace (the so-called veto right, that is, the right to reject any decision with which I do not agree one of the members five graters). Important institutions of economic stabilization were also created under the auspices of the UN: the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Development Reconstruction. Thus, at the end of the war and soon after its end, the foundation was laid. for continuation of cooperation of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition in the post-war years. With all the sharp clashes of interests between the USSR and the United States, in the first post-war years they had to fight within the framework of the established international organizations and agreed decisions. Nuremberg Trials. Among the post-war problems of settlement, a special place was occupied by the Trials of the main war criminals. On the Nuremberg trials the main Nazi war criminals were charged with conspiracy against peace by preparing and waging wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity. The tribunal sentenced 12 of the accused to death and the rest to various terms of imprisonment. This process was not only a punishment for the main war and Nazi criminals. He became a condemnation of Fascism and Nazism, the world community. This was the beginning of the process of cleansing Europe from fascism. In Germany, in the first post-war years, more than 2 million trials took place over military and Nazi criminals, the administrative apparatus, the judicial system and the education system were cleared of them.

In little Belgium, after the liberation, more than 600 thousand cases of cooperation with the occupiers were opened for consideration and about 80 thousand sentences were passed.

In France, more radical measures were taken: 120 thousand sentences were passed on collaborators, of which about a thousand were deaths. The leader of the fascist regime Laval was executed, and Pétain was sentenced to life imprisonment.

In the Netherlands, more than 150 thousand cases of those arrested on charges of collaboration with the Germans were considered.

However, purges across countries have not always been consistent. Thousands of Nazis and collaborators not only escaped punishment, but also remained in their posts in the administration, courts, and the education system.

Many war criminals took refuge in Latin America. However, with all this, a process of repentance and cleansing from the filth of fascism began in Europe.

The beginning of the Cold War After World War II, the two great powers, the USSR and the United States, proved to be the most powerful in the military and economically and gained the greatest influence in the world. The split of the world into two systems and the polarity of the political course of the two great powers could not but affect the international relations of this period. The ideological confrontation separating these two powers has generated an atmosphere of hostility on the world stage, and in the internal life of these countries - the search for an enemy. Dissent in both countries was seen as a manifestation of subversion. As a result, such an ugly phenomenon as “McCarthyism. - prosecution of citizens on suspicion of anti-American activity. In the USSR, such an atmosphere was one of the features of the totalitarian regime. The two great powers have adopted the concept of a two-pole world and violent confrontation.

An influential American journalist at the time called these conflicts the "cold war." The press picked up this phrase, and it became the designation of the entire period of international politics up to the end of the 80s. biennium Churchill's speech in the USA. Usually in historical works The original date of the turn in the foreign policy of the United States and Western countries is considered to be the speech of the former Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill, which he delivered in the presence of the American President, Mr. Truman March 5, 1946 v. campus Fulton. The presence of G. Truman was to underline the special significance of this event. Otherwise, why would the president fly to the very center of the United States, to a provincial town to listen to a speech, the content of which he was familiarized with in advance? It was also no coincidence that at that time in Canada, the process against Soviet agents had already begun, by suppressing the United States. W. Churchill's speech in Fulton is considered the beginning of the Cold War. Churchill said that "iron curtain" separated Eastern Europe from European civilization and the Anglo-Saxon world should unite in the face of the communist threat.

The opposition of the interests of the two great powers was revealed in the practical implementation of the decisions of the allies on post-war problems, especially on the Polish borders, on the composition of the Polish government, in the German settlement, etc. Confirmation of communist parties in power in the countries of Eastern Europe in 1947-1948, partisan movement in Greece and other foreign policy events in the United States were viewed as a communist expansion. This is where the US foreign policy doctrines of "containment" and "rollback" of communism emerged. Soviet propaganda did not remain in debt and condemned the expansion of American imperialism.

The arms race was the most important area of ​​confrontation and potential conflict between the two great powers and their allies. There is an opinion that the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima in August 1945 was not only the last act of the Second World War, but also the first act of the Cold War, after which the arms race began on the principle of "challenge-response", "shield and sword".

V The USSR began to speed up the creation of its atomic bomb. Its first Test was successfully completed in 1949.The USA tested a hydrogen bomb in 1952, and the USSR - a year later. The USA created strategic bombers, and the USSR - intercontinental missiles. The means of anti-aircraft defense and anti-missile systems were improved. The competition between the two systems in various areas of military production continued until the very leaders of these countries realized that the number of warheads exceeded the level of defensive sufficiency. The accumulated number of bombs could be destroyed Earth several times.

The creation of military-political blocs has also become an area of ​​“competition. two great powers. It began with US military material aid to Greece and Turkey at the beginning of 1947, which were threatened by "communist pressure".

“The Marshall Plan. on providing multi-billion dollar aid to countries Western Europe was intended to strengthen the stronghold of capitalism in Europe. The USSR and the socialist countries refused this assistance, fearing the threat of enslavement by American imperialism.

In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created, which initially proclaimed the security of the Western powers from the possible revival of Germany. Germany joined NATO in 1955. In 1955, a military-political alliance was created under the leadership of the USSR - the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD)

Thus, the confrontation between the two great powers became a confrontation between two military-political blocs. The logic of confrontation led the world further and further into the quagmire of the growing threat of nuclear war.

Another important sign of the Cold War is the division of the world and Europe. With the formation of communist regimes in the countries of Central and Southeast Europe by the beginning of 1948, with the victory of the Chinese revolution and the formation of the PRC in October 1949, the formation of the "world socialist camp" was basically completed. The border between the two "camps", as the split of the world into two irreconcilable socio-economic systems was then called, ran in Europe through the territory of Germany along the line of the western and eastern occupation zones, on Far East along the 38th parallel in Korea and in Southeast Asia in Vietnam, where since 1946 French troops waged a war against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which had liberated itself from the Japanese invaders.

Although the two great powers managed to avoid a direct military clash (the threat of mutual nuclear annihilation held back), military conflicts nevertheless took place, and the main and most dangerous escalation of the cold war into a hot one was the Korean war (1950-1953).

QUESTIONS AND TASKS:

1. Tell us about the consequences of the war, compare with the consequences of the First World War.

2. What are the main features of the Yalta-Potsdam system? What are the reasons for the collapse of the anti-Hitler coalition?

3. How was the post-war peace settlement organized?

4. What is the difference between the post-World War II United Nations and the pre-war League of Nations?

5. What is the significance of the Nuremberg trials over the main war criminals and trials over Nazis and collaborators in other countries?

6. What are the reasons and essence of the so-called "cold war"?

7. What contradictions were shared by the two great powers - the USSR and the USA?

8. What political blocs were formed after the Second World War?

The events of the world war turned out to be a difficult test for the peoples. At its final stage, it became obvious that some of the warring states could not withstand the difficulties that befell them. First of all, these were multinational empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman. The burden of war they bore exacerbated social and national contradictions. A long-term exhausting war with external opponents grew into a struggle of peoples against their own rulers. It is known how this happened in Russia.

Formation of new states

And here is how Austria-Hungary collapsed.

Dates and Events

• October 16, 1918... - the head of the Hungarian government announced the dissolution of the alliance with Austria by Hungary.
• 28 of October- The National Czechoslovak Committee (established in July 1918) decided to form an independent Czechoslovak state.
• 29th of October- the National Council was created in Vienna and the independence of German Austria was proclaimed; on the same day, the National Council in Zagreb proclaimed the state independence of the South Slavs of Austria-Hungary.
• October 30- in Krakow, the Liquidation Commission was created, which took over the management of the Polish lands, which had previously been part of Austria-Hungary, and proclaimed the belonging of these lands to the reviving Polish state; on the same day, the National Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina (which were captured by Austria-Hungary in 1908) announced the annexation of both lands to Serbia.

At the final stage of the world war, there was also a disintegration Ottoman Empire, from which the territories inhabited by non-Turkish peoples separated.

As a result of the fall of multinational empires in Europe, a number of new states emerged. First of all, these were the countries that restored the once lost independence - Poland, Lithuania and others. The revival required significant efforts. At times it was especially difficult to do this. Thus, the "gathering" of Polish lands, previously divided between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia, began during the war, in 1917, and only in November 1918 power passed into the hands of a single provisional government of the Polish Republic. Some of the new states first appeared on the map of Europe in such a composition and borders, for example, the Republic of Czechoslovakia, which united two kindred Slavic peoples - the Czechs and Slovaks (proclaimed on October 28, 1918). The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes (proclaimed on December 1, 1918), later named Yugoslavia, became a new multinational state.

The formation of a sovereign state was a turning point in the life of each of the peoples. However, it did not solve all the problems. The legacy of the war was economic devastation and aggravated social contradictions. Revolutionary unrest did not subside after independence.

Paris Peace Conference

On January 18, 1919, a peace conference opened at the Palace of Versailles near Paris. Politicians and diplomats from 32 states had to determine the results of the war, paid for with the blood and sweat of millions of people who fought on the fronts and worked in the rear of the people. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to the conference.

The main role at the conference belonged to representatives of the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, but in reality the main proposals were made by three politicians - US President W. Wilson, British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George and French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau. They represented the conditions of peace in different ways. Back in January 1918, Wilson proposed a program for a peaceful settlement and a post-war organization of international life - the so-called "14 points" (on the basis of which an armistice was concluded with Germany in November 1918).

The "14 Points" provided for the following: the establishment of a just peace and the rejection of secret diplomacy; freedom of navigation; equality in economic relations between states; arms limitation; settlement of colonial issues taking into account the interests of all peoples; the liberation of the occupied territories and the principles of determining the boundaries of a number of European states; the formation of an independent Polish state, including "all lands inhabited by Poles" and having access to the sea; creation of an international organization guaranteeing the sovereignty and integrity of all countries.

The program reflected both the aspirations of American diplomacy and the personal views of W. Wilson. Before being elected president, he was a university professor for many years, and if before he tried to familiarize students with the truth and ideals of justice, now - whole nations. Obviously, the author's desire to oppose the “positive democratic program” to the ideas of the Bolsheviks and the foreign policy course also played an important role in the advancement of the “14 points”. Soviet Russia... In a confidential conversation at that time, he admitted: "The ghost of Bolshevism is lurking everywhere ... All over the world there is a grave concern."

French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau took a different position. Its goals had a practical orientation - to achieve compensation for all losses of France in the war, maximum territorial and monetary compensation, as well as the economic and military weakening of Germany. Clemenceau adhered to the motto "Germany will pay for everything!" For intransigence and fierce defense of his point of view, the conference participants called him the nickname "tiger" that had stuck with him.

The experienced and flexible politician D. Lloyd George tried to balance the positions of the parties and avoid extreme decisions. He wrote: “... it seems to me that we should try to draw up a peace treaty as objective arbiters (judges), forgetting about the passion of war. This treaty should have three goals in mind. First of all, to ensure justice in taking into account Germany's responsibility for the outbreak of the war and for the ways in which it was waged. Secondly, it must be a treaty that a responsible German government can sign with the confidence that it is able to fulfill its assigned obligations. Thirdly, it should be a treaty that will not contain any provocations of the subsequent war and will create an alternative to Bolshevism by offering all reasonable people a real settlement of the European problem ... "

The discussion of the peace terms lasted for almost six months. Behind the scenes of the official work of the commissions and committees, the main decisions were made by the members of the Big Three - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George. They conducted closed consultations and agreements, “forgetting” about “open diplomacy” and other principles proclaimed by W. Wilson. An important event in the course of the protracted discussions was the decision to create an international organization contributing to the maintenance of peace - the League of Nations.

On June 28, 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Grand Palace of Versailles, a peace treaty was signed between the allied powers and Germany. Under the terms of the treaty, Germany transferred Alsace and Lorraine to France, the Eupen district, Malmedy to Belgium, the Poznan region and parts of Pomerania and Upper Silesia to Poland, northern part Schleswig - Denmark (following the plebiscite). The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by the Entente troops, and on the right bank a demilitarized zone was established. The Saar region came under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a “free city”, Memel (Klaipeda) seceded from Germany (later included in Lithuania). In total, 1/8 of the territory, on which 1/10 of the country's population lived, was rejected from Germany. In addition, Germany was deprived of colonial possessions, its rights in the Shandong province in China were transferred to Japan. Limits were imposed on the number (no more than 100 thousand people) and armaments of the German army. Germany also had to pay reparations - payments to individual countries for damage caused by a German attack.

Versailles-Washington system

The Versailles Treaty was not limited to solving the German question. It contained provisions on the League of Nations - an organization created for the purpose of settling international disputes and conflicts (the Charter of the League of Nations was also cited here).

Later, peace treaties were signed with Germany's former allies - Austria (September 10, 1919), Bulgaria (November 27, 1919), Hungary (June 4, 1920), Turkey (August 10, 1920). They determined the borders of these countries, which were established after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and the seizure of part of the territories from them in favor of the victorious powers. For Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, restrictions on the number of armed forces were introduced, and reparations to the winners were provided for. The terms of the treaty with Turkey were particularly tough. She lost all her possessions in Europe, on the Arabian Peninsula, in North Africa. Military establishment Turkey was reduced, it was forbidden to keep the fleet. The area of ​​the Black Sea straits passed under the control of an international commission. This treaty, humiliating for the country, was replaced in 1923, after the victory of the Turkish revolution.

The League of Nations, established in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, took part in the redistribution of colonial possessions. The so-called mandate system was introduced, according to which the colonies taken from Germany and its allies under the mandate of the League of Nations were transferred under the tutelage of "advanced" countries, primarily Great Britain and France, which were able to occupy a dominant position in the League of Nations. At the same time, the United States of America, whose president put forward the idea and actively contributed to the creation of the League of Nations, did not join this organization and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles. This testified to the fact that the new system, eliminating some contradictions in international relations, gave rise to new ones.

The post-war settlement could not be limited to Europe and the Middle East. Significant problems also existed in the Far East, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean. There, the interests of the British, French and new contenders for influence - the United States and Japan, who had previously penetrated the region, clashed, and their rivalry turned out to be especially sharp. To solve the problems, a conference was called in Washington (November 1921 - February 1922). It was attended by representatives of the USA, Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China. Soviet Russia, whose borders were in this region, did not receive an invitation to the conference this time either.

Several treaties were signed at the Washington Conference. They secured the rights of the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan to the territories they owned in this region (for Japan, this meant the recognition of its rights to the captured possessions of Germany), and established the ratio of the naval forces of individual countries. The question of China was especially considered. On the one hand, the principle of respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China was proclaimed, and on the other, the provision of "equal opportunities" for the great powers in this country. Thus, the monopoly seizure of China by one of the powers was prevented (a similar threat existed from Japan), but hands were free for the joint exploitation of the wealth of this vast country.

The alignment of forces and mechanisms prevailing by the beginning of the 1920s international relations in Europe and the world were called the Versailles-Washington system.

Old and new in international relations

Since 1920, the Soviet state began to establish relations with neighboring countries by signing peace treaties with Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland. In 1921, agreements on friendship and cooperation were concluded with Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey. They were based on the recognition of the independence of these states, the equality of partners, and in this they differed from the semi-cabal agreements imposed on the countries of the East by the Western powers.

At the same time, following the signing of the Anglo-Soviet trade agreement (March 1921), the question arose about the resumption of economic ties between Russia and the leading European countries. In 1922, representatives of Soviet Russia were invited to an international economic conference in Genoa (which opened on April 10). The Soviet delegation was headed by the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G.V. Chicherin. The Western powers hoped to gain access to Russian natural resources and the market, as well as to find ways of economic and political influence to Russia. The Soviet state was interested in establishing economic ties with the outside world and diplomatic recognition.

The means of pressure on Russia from the West was the demand that it pay off the external debts of tsarist Russia and the Provisional Government and compensation for the property of foreign citizens nationalized by the Bolsheviks. The Soviet country was ready to recognize the pre-war debts of Russia and the right of former foreign owners to receive in concession the property previously owned by them, subject to the legal recognition of the Soviet state and the provision of financial incentives and loans to it. Russia offered to cancel military debts (to declare invalid). At the same time, the Soviet delegation submitted a proposal for a general reduction in armaments. The Western powers did not agree with these proposals. They insisted on the payment by Russia of all debts, including military ones (in the amount of about 19 billion gold rubles), the return of all nationalized property to its former owners, and the abolition of the monopoly of foreign trade in the country. The Soviet delegation considered these demands unacceptable and, for its part, proposed that the Western powers compensate for the losses caused to Russia by the intervention and blockade (39 billion gold rubles). The negotiations are at an impasse.

It was not possible to reach a general agreement at the conference. But Soviet diplomats were able to negotiate with representatives of the German delegation in Rapallo (a suburb of Genoa). On April 16, a Soviet-German agreement was signed on the resumption of diplomatic relations. Both countries have abandoned claims for damages caused to each other during the war. Germany recognized the nationalization of German property in Russia, while Russia refused to receive reparations from Germany. The treaty came as a surprise to international diplomatic and political circles both because of the very fact of its signing and in terms of its content. Contemporaries noted that he gave the impression of an exploding bomb. It was the success of the diplomats of the two countries and an example for others. It became more and more obvious that the problem of relations with Soviet Russia had become one of the main problems of international politics at that time.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General history... XX - early XXI century.

Speaking about the results of the First World War, it is necessary to highlight the unprecedented scale of the national and national liberation movement.

The last years of the war were marked by the collapse of four once powerful empires: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman. In Europe, without waiting for international legal registration, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Finland, Czechoslovakia, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia declared their independence. Such a radical breakdown of the international structure required the victorious powers to make significant adjustments to their approach to the problems of a peaceful settlement, taking into account the new political realities and the national interests of the newly formed European states.

Almost the entire colonial world was engulfed in the national liberation struggle. In 1918-1921. major anti-colonial and anti-imperialist demonstrations took place in India, China, Mongolia, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, Afghanistan and other colonial and dependent countries. Like the revolutionary upsurge in Europe, the national liberation movement in colonial world contributed to the democratization of international relations. It was at this time and for this reason that many representatives of the political elite of the West started talking about the "right of nations to self-determination" and about solving the colonial question "taking into account the interests of the local population." The history of modern times of the countries of Europe and America. 1918-1945 / Ed. E. Yazkova. M., 1989 - p. 137

Character new system international relations and its legal form to a decisive extent depended on the alignment and balance of forces between the great powers - the main subjects of world politics.

The United States of America won the most. The war has turned this country into a first-class world power. It created favorable conditions for rapid economic growth and significant strengthening of the US financial position.

The United States entered the war only in April 1917, and began active hostilities in June 1918, i.e. shortly before its completion. US casualties were relatively small; 50 thousand people killed and 230 thousand wounded. The territory of the United States itself was not affected by military operations and, therefore, unlike European countries, the United States managed to avoid any material damage and destruction.

The strengthening of the US financial position, combined with economic leadership, created the material basis for the transformation of the country from a regional to a great world power. In a broader international aspect, this meant the transfer of the industrial and financial center of the capitalist world from Europe to North America.

These were the reasons for the intensification of US foreign policy. Having become the leading power in the world in terms of economic and financial indicators, the United States is beginning to aspire to a leading role in world politics. As early as April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson publicly proclaimed: "We are faced with the task of financing the whole world, and whoever gives money must learn to rule the world."

At the same time, the change in the balance of power between the great powers in favor of the United States during this period did not lead to their transformation into a global political leader. This was primarily due to the fact that American business was not yet sufficiently "prepared" for the role of a trendsetter in the global economy. The development of the vast domestic market is far from complete in the United States. In the early 1920s, 85-90% of the country's industrial production was consumed domestically. As for the surplus capital, except for the emergency situation during the war years, it was exported to a limited number of countries in the Western Hemisphere. In other sectors of the world market, where the dominant position.

Describing the international position of Great Britain after the end of the war, one can state a certain weakening of its position in the world. The victory went to England at a high price. Its human losses amounted to 744 thousand killed and about 1,700 thousand wounded. The war caused significant damage to the English economy. Significantly yielding to the United States, England finally lost its former industrial leadership in the world. Its share in world industrial production decreased, amounting to 9% in 1920 (compared with 13.6% in 1913). Huge military spending dramatically worsened Britain's financial position. For the first time in many years of financial prosperity, it has transformed itself from the most integral international creditor and debtor country. Its post-war external debt was estimated at $ 5 billion, of which $ 3.7 billion was in the long-term United States. During the war, the foreign trade positions of England were also undermined. The country has lost 40% of its trade front. As a result, British foreign trade fell by almost 2 times. The powerful upsurge of the national liberation movement was another "blow of fate" from which Britain suffered the most, as it occupied a leading place among the colonial powers.

At the same time, the negative consequences of the First World War for Great Britain cannot be absolutized. There were other factors that allowed this country not only to maintain its position as a great world power, but even to strengthen it in some areas.

World War II brought significant changes to the international status of the French Republic. The triumph of victory could only temporarily overshadow the extremely grave consequences of the war: huge material damage and numerous human casualties. In terms of military losses, France was second only to Germany and Russia: 1,327,000 killed and 2,800,000 wounded. The northeastern departments of France were almost completely devastated. The material damage I suffered during the war was estimated at 15 billion dollars, which was 31% of the pre-war national wealth. Even more serious losses awaited France in the financial area. The war deprived her of the role of "world usurer", placing it on a par with other debtor states. French debt to the United States and England exceeded $ 7 billion. October Revolution: 71% of all debts of the tsarist and Provisional governments canceled by the Soviet regime fell on the French Republic. The consequences of the war, such as a sharp reduction in foreign trade turnover (almost 2 times) and foreign investment (by 30%), as well as an exacerbation of the national liberation struggle in the French colonies, also had a negative impact on the international position of France.

However, as in the case of England, the positive results of the war for France prevailed over the negative ones, which allowed her not only to preserve, but also to strengthen her position as a great world power.

Another victorious country - Italy - before the war was rightfully considered one of the weak links among the great European powers.

The world war did not bring about any serious changes in this situation. Rather, on the contrary, it demonstrated the economic and military inconsistency of Italy, becoming an unbearable burden for it. During the war, Italy lost 580 thousand soldiers and officers. The record number of deserters and voluntarily surrendering (more than 1 million people) allowed military experts to call the Italian army "the most captive army in the world." Economic downturn, social tensions were intensified by a deep political crisis, which manifested itself in the extreme instability of power structures.

Japan, which entered the war on the side of the Entente in August 1914, did not take an active part in it. Her military actions were mainly reduced to the hunt for German cruisers in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Japan's contribution to the overall victory over the enemy can be indirectly estimated by its military losses, which amounted to about 300 people.

But the results of the war were more than favorable for Japan.

Having instantly captured the German possessions in the Far East and the Pacific Ocean at the very beginning of the war, Japan significantly strengthened its position in this region of the world. She took possession of strategically and economically important regions: the Marshall, Caroline and Mariana Islands, the territory of Guangzhou leased by Germany in China, as well as the Chinese province of Shandong. Taking advantage of the preoccupation of the European powers with the war, Japan made the first attempt to establish control over all of China. In January 1915, she presented the interim president of the Republic of China, Yuan Shikai, an ultimatum that went down in history as "21 demands." This document actually turned China into a Japanese semi-colony. Another extremely beneficial result of the war for Japan was the ousting of Western powers engaged in the war in Europe from Asian markets. This largely explained the extremely fast growth rates of the Japanese economy. In 1920, industrial production exceeded the pre-war level by 70%, and the export of Japanese goods increased by 330%. The history of modern times of the countries of Europe and America. 1918-1945 / Ed. E. Yazkova. M., 1989 - p. 139

Germany excelled in the number of non-returnable military losses: 2 million 37 thousand were killed. German soldiers and an officer. The direct result of the war was the catastrophic state of the economy. Industrial output in 1920 was 58% compared to the pre-war level. Sharp social and political crisis resulted in the revolution of I9I8-I9I9, the overthrow of the Hohenzollern monarchy and the proclamation of the Weimar Republic. Already by the Armistice of Compiegne, Germany lost its navy, a significant part of its weapons and all colonial possessions. Thus, Germany lost its great-power status, she left the international arena as a great world power for decades to come.

The world war dealt an even more crushing blow to the international positions of Austria-Hungary.

Unlike Germany, Austria-Hungary did not simply and temporarily lose its great-power status, it lost it forever; in the recent past, a powerful empire ceased to exist not only as a great power, but also as a state. History of the First World War 1914-1918 / edited by I. I. Rostunov. - in 2 volumes. - M .: Nauka, 1975.

Despite significant territorial losses in the European part of the former Russian Empire (Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became sovereign states, the western parts of Ukraine and Belarus went to Poland, and Bessarabia was annexed by Romania), Russia continued to be an important factor in international life. The main thing is that it retained the status of a great power.

The most ambitious was the United States plan. It was set forth by President Woodrow Wilson in his message to the US Congress on January 8, 1918, in the form of Fourteen Points or "Fundamental Principles." Wilson's "Peace Program" boiled down to the following provisions. Point 1 declared the rejection of secret diplomacy, publicity in peace negotiations. Paragraph 2 solemnly declared freedom of navigation in peacetime and in wartime. Paragraph 3 spoke about freedom of trade and the elimination of all customs barriers. Clause 4 demanded the establishment of firm guarantees to ensure the reduction of national armaments "to the ultimate minimum." Paragraph 5 proclaimed "a completely independent, impartial solution to the colonial question." Clause 6, dedicated to Russia, asserted its right to "freely determine" the path of political development. Clauses 7 through 13 contained the American version of solving a number of important territorial-state problems, which formed the basis for their discussion at the peace conference.

Paragraph 14, and the last, provided for the establishment of an international organization for the preservation and maintenance of peace. The US President called the projected organization "League of Nations".

Thus, in Wilson's program, democratic and even radical slogans unusual for that time were put forward.

The program, put forward by Wilson, was the first official declaration of the American government about the US claims to the role of world political leader, "supreme arbiter" in international affairs. It was a bid to lead the post-war world.

The "Peace Program" of the United States not only proclaimed a fundamentally new goal of American foreign policy, it also deceived qualitatively new methods for achieving this goal.

The plan for rebuilding the world put forward by the American president was dual in nature, combining the principles of globalism and liberalism. This conclusion was shared by Wilson himself, who called for "combining participation in the world struggle for power with the leadership of the world liberal movement."

During the war years, England successfully managed to implement its foreign policy plans. Its main rival Germany was defeated as a naval and colonial power. A significant part of the German colonies and territories of the Ottoman Empire were under the control of Great Britain and its dominions. Therefore, the main task was to preserve and legally consolidate what has already been achieved and won.

Joining the ranks of the great world powers of the United States and Japan gave the concept of the balance of power a global character. The interests of maintaining a favorable global equilibrium explained the struggle of England against the hegemonic aspirations of the United States.

The French balance of power policy became an auxiliary means of achieving strategic goals. It assumed the formation on the eastern borders of Germany of a military-political bloc of small European states under the auspices of France. This bloc was viewed by the French government as a counterweight to Germany, on the one hand, and Soviet Russia, on the other.

France's attitude to the attempts of the United States and Britain to introduce liberal principles into the system of international relations can be characterized as condescending and mostly negative. J. Clemenceau, being a prominent representative of the old diplomatic school, considered all discussions about a "new, more just world order" to be "harmful utopia" and demagogy.

The central idea of ​​the liberals about the creation of the League of Nations, in principle, was not rejected by Clemenceau, but with one significant reservation. The projected peacekeeping organization, in the conviction of the French Prime Minister, must have strength, otherwise its activities will be ineffective. Only France, which had a millionth land army... In other words, it was only under French leadership that the League of Nations could turn from a utopia into a really functioning body. Another example of France's negative attitude to the liberal studies of Britain and the United States was its approach to the Soviet problem. Clemenceau, unlike Lloyd George and Wilson, presented not a liberal, but a conservative alternative to the socialist threat. He was a resolute opponent of any negotiations with the Bolsheviks, one of the initiators of the anti-Soviet crusade.

The post-war plans of the other two victorious powers - Italy and Japan - did not touch on global, but regional problems.

On January 18, 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Grand Palace of Versailles, the Paris Peace Conference was opened in a festive atmosphere. It was the largest international forum since the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The conference was attended by representatives of 27 victorious countries that fought or declared war on Germany.

The most important task of the Paris Conference was to create and legalize a new system of international relations. In fact, it was about the redistribution of spheres of influence between the great powers, about deciding the fate of the peoples of Europe and the world, about the establishment of a new world order.

The historical significance of this task predetermined the allocation of the following main issues: 1) the peaceful settlement of the German problem; 2) development and conclusion of peace treaties with the former allies of Germany - Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey; 3) territorial-state reorganization in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe; 4) determination of the status of the former colonies of Germany and the possessions of the Ottoman Empire; 5) the creation of the first international organization in the history of mankind to ensure the peace and security of peoples; 6) a special place was occupied by the "Russian question", without the resolution of which it was impossible to seriously talk about a pan-European peace settlement.

The Paris Peace Conference became the arena of a fierce struggle between the victorious countries, and above all between the United States, Britain and France. This struggle was caused by deep contradictions reflected in the plans for the post-war organization of the world. This was the root cause of the unusually heated debate among the three largest politicians of that time: W. Wilson, D. Lloyd George and J. Clemenceau.

An important place in the work of the conference was occupied by the polemic on the issues of a peaceful settlement with Germany.

In the struggle against the Anglo-American bloc, France was forced to make serious concessions on a number of fronts.

The result of the work of the Paris Peace Conference was the adoption of compromise decisions, which formed the basis of the Versailles system of international relations.

On June 28, ICH10, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, the German delegation led by the newly appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs G. Müller and Minister of Justice I. Eell signed a peace treaty with representatives of the victorious countries. The organizers of the conference timed the signing of an agreement with Germany on the fifth anniversary of the Sarajevo assassination, which was the reason for the outbreak of the First World War.

The Versailles Peace Treaty was a collection of 440 articles, divided into 15 parts. Part I (Charter-League of Nations) and part XIII (“Labor” - on the creation of the International Labor Organization under the League of Nations in order to achieve “social justice”) were included in all other peace treaties.

After the conclusion of the Versailles Treaty in Germany, which found itself in the position of a "humiliated and insulted" country, revanchist sentiments became widespread. The struggle for the abolition of the hated treaty and revenge on the victorious powers became the main task of German foreign policy in the near future. Realizing this, Marshal Foch uttered the prophetic words: "This is not peace, but a truce for a period of 20 years." In other words. The Versailles Peace Treaty, perceived in Germany as a symbol of national humiliation and deep injustice, strategically created all the prerequisites for the struggle for a new redivision of the world.

Peace treaties with Germany's former allies were recognized to approve a new geopolitical structure for Europe and other regions of the world following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires.

The peace treaty with Austria was signed on September 10, 1919. on the outskirts of Paris Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

Austria was prepared for a very modest place in the European system of international relations; having lost the position of a great power, it acquired the status of one of the small countries of Europe.

Under the Treaty of Neisk, Bulgaria lost 11% of its pre-war territory. Southern Dobrudzha and some other regions with the Bulgarian population were assigned to Romania. To the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, 4 districts departed on the western borders of Bulgaria, mostly populated by Bulgarians. The most important economic and strategic loss was the establishment of the jurisdiction of the "main ally of the powers" over Western Thrace, which was soon ceded to Greece. Thus, Boltaria was deprived of access to the Aegean Sea.

The Neiji Treaty sharply worsened Bulgaria's international position even in comparison with that which it occupied after the defeat in the second Balkan War.

On June 4, 1920, at the Grand Trianon Palace of Versailles, the ceremony of signing a peace treaty with Hungary took place.

Since Hungary for a long period was part of the two-pronged Austro-Hungarian monarchy, many articles of the Trianon peace literally coincided with similar provisions of the Treaty of Saint Germain.

Despite the fact that the decision to establish the League of Nations was chronologically the first of those adopted at the Paris Conference, it was it that summed up the final result of the hard work on the formation of a new system of international relations. This decision reflected the desire of the peoples for a just, civilized world order, therefore it should be attributed to the most significant successes of the victorious powers.

In July 1921, US President Warren Harding came up with an initiative to hold an international conference in Washington to limit naval weapons, Pacific and Far Eastern issues. At the Paris Peace Conference, these important problems of the post-war settlement were either not fully resolved or not touched upon at all. In this sense, the Washington conference was a kind of continuation of the Paris conference. It was designed to complete the process of forming a new system of international relations. The end of the Washington Conference marked the beginning of the functioning of the Versailles-Washington system of international relations. The Versailles-Washington system was the international legal framework for the results of the First World War and the new alignment of forces that emerged after its end. Its creation completed the process of transition from war to peace and contributed to the temporary stabilization of international relations.

But the Versailles-Washington system was complex and contradictory. It combined both democratic, just and conservative, imperialist principles of a peaceful settlement.

Thus, the new model of international relations, which differed from the old ones by well-known liberalism, was predominantly conservative in its content and character and in a broken sense, although with a different balance of power, was the "legal successor" of the previous international systems.

Paris Peace Conference January 1919 - January 1920 President of France R. The conference was opened by 27 Poincaré states about the German (there was no Soviet Russia and Germany) The decisive role: England, USA, France, Japan, Italy "Council of Ten" (leaders of countries + ministers Foreign Affairs) of the empire at the opening of the conference: "Born in injustice, she ended her existence in dishonor" on January 18, 1919, on the same day and in the same day when and where the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 - the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles the main issues were decided by: US President Woodrow Wilson, Prime Ministers: France - Georges Clemenceau (chairman at the conference); Great Britain - David Lloyd George; Italy - Vittorio Orlando

League of Nations l Purpose - to ensure peace and international security Assembly Council of the League (USA, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) Creation of a mandate system for managing colonies Introduction of a system of sanctions against the aggressor Sanctions against the aggressor (according to the Charter of the League of Nations): 1) The gap between trade and financial relations (if the aggressor is a member of the LP) 2) Recommendations in the event of war to interested governments to send troops against the aggressor

Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France. The Saar region was transferred for 15 years to the management of the League of Nations, and the Saar coal basin - to France (then a plebiscite) Germany recognized the independence of Luxembourg, Poland, Czechoslovakia, pledged to respect the sovereignty of Austria Part of the German lands was transferred to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Denmark Germany lost privileges in China , all colonies that were transferred to France, Belgium, Portugal, Great Britain, Japan (in the form of the League of Nations mandates - powers to rule) Peace of Versailles June 28, 1919 German army - no more than 100 thousand people (Reichswehr), a ban on having tanks, aviation, submarine fleet, introduce universal military service Payment of war reparations to winners (132 billion marks) German lands east of the Rhine (50 km) made up the Rhine demilitarized zone, where it was forbidden to keep troops and build fortifications

Results of the Paris Peace Conference l Growth of German nationalism l Creation of the League of Nations l Contradictions emerged between the leading countries of the West over claims to primacy in the post-war world

Peace treaties with Germany's allies Territorial losses (South Tyrol - Italy, Czech Republic and September 10, 1919 Moravia - Czechoslovakia, Bukovina - Romania) Saint Germain n Army limitation (up to 30 thousand) Treaty n Payment of reparations with Austria n Anschluss was prohibited ( accession to Germany) n November 27, 1919 Treaty in Neuilly with Bulgaria June 4, 1920 Treaty of Trianon with Hungary Territorial losses (Eastern Thrace - Greece; actually lost access to the Aegean Sea) n Army limitation (up to 20 thousand) nn Reduction of territory (~ 70%) and population (~ 50%) - non-Hungarian lands ceded to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania and inhabited by non-Hungarians Limitation of the army (up to 33 thousand) n Abolition of universal military service; payment of reparations n August 10, 1920 n Collapse of the Ottoman Empire (behind Turkey ~ 1/5 of the territory) Sevres n International control over the Black Sea Straits Treaty (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) with Turkey

Washington international Conference November 12, 1921 - February 6, 1922 USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Holland, China Objectives: l limiting maritime armaments l limiting the strengthening of Japan ("Asia for Asians" doctrine)

Washington treaties Treaties Parties to treaties Terms of treaties "Treaty of Four" USA, Great Britain, France, Japan 1) Respect for mutual rights to the islands in Oceania. 2) Their joint protection. "Treaty of Five" USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy 1) Prohibition of ships with a displacement of over 35 thousand tons. 2) The ratio of military fleets (battleships) - 5: 5: 3, 5: 1, 75. "Pact of Nine" All participants 1) Respect for the independence and territorial integrity of China. 2) The principle " open doors"And" equal opportunities "of all countries in China. 3) Japan's refusal from the Shandong peninsula and its return to China (revision of the Treaty of Versailles). Growth of revanchist sentiments in Japan The first real attempt to limit arms at the international level Creation and consolidation of the Versailles-Washington system

Aggravation of social contradictions as a result of the war Great sacrifices and destruction The hardships of rear life Growing influence of left-wing ideology 1917 - October Socialist Revolution in Russia 1918 - November bourgeois-democratic revolution in Germany 1918 - national liberation movements in Austria. Hungary The collapse of the empire The fall of the monarchy The collapse of the empire · Russia · Finland · Poland · Latvia · Lithuania · Estonia 1919 - an attempt to create the Bavarian Soviet Republic 1918 -1919. - red biennium · 12.11.1918 - Republic of Austria · 28.10.1918 - Czechoslovakia · 01.12.1918 - Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1927 - Yugoslavia) · 1918 -1919 - Hungarian Revolution

Labor movement nn March 1919 - III International (Communist) - Comintern - course towards the world socialist revolution 1920 - revival of the II International (since 1923 - Workers 'Socialist International - Socialist International) - course towards social reforms, expansion of workers' rights, cooperation with the authorities